Carries out ecological monitoring of the environment. Environmental monitoring and environmental information system. Features of the organization of hemos in the Russian Federation

Of great importance in the organization of rational nature management is the study of the problems of nature management at the global, regional and local levels, as well as the assessment of the quality of the human environment in specific areas, in ecosystems of various ranks.

Monitoring is a system of observations, assessment and forecasting, which makes it possible to identify changes in the state of the environment under the influence of anthropogenic activity.

Along with a negative impact on nature, a person can also have a positive impact as a result of economic activity.

Monitoring includes:

monitoring changes in the quality of the environment, factors affecting the environment;

assessment of the actual state of the natural environment;

forecast of changes in the quality of the environment.

Observations can be carried out on physical, chemical and biological indicators, integrated indicators of the state of the environment are promising.

Types of monitoring. Allocate global, regional and local monitoring. (What underlies such a selection?)

Global monitoring allows assessing the current state of the entire natural system of the Earth.

Regional monitoring is carried out at the expense of the stations of the system, where information about the territories subject to anthropogenic influence flows.

Rational nature management is possible if the information provided by the monitoring system is available and properly used.

Environmental monitoring is a system for monitoring, evaluating and predicting changes in the state of the environment under the influence of anthropogenic impact.

Monitoring tasks are:

Quantitative and qualitative assessment of the state of air, surface water, climate change, soil cover, flora and fauna, control of runoff and dust and gas emissions at industrial enterprises;

Drawing up a forecast on the state of the environment;

Informing citizens about changes in the environment.

Forecast and forecasting.

What is forecasting and forecasting? In various periods of the development of society, the ways of studying the environment have changed. One of the most important "tools" of nature management is currently considered forecasting. Translated into Russian, the word "forecast" means foresight, prediction.

Therefore, a forecast in nature management is a prediction of changes in the natural resource potential and needs for natural resources on a global, regional and local scale.

Forecasting is a set of actions that make it possible to make judgments about the behavior of natural systems and are determined by natural processes and the impact of humanity on them in the future.

The main purpose of the forecast is to assess the expected reaction of the natural environment to direct or indirect human impact, as well as to solve the problems of future rational nature management in connection with the expected states of the natural environment.

In connection with the reassessment of the system of values, the change of technocratic thinking to ecological thinking, there are changes in forecasting. Modern forecasts should be carried out from the standpoint of universal human values, the main of which are a person, his health, the quality of the environment, and the preservation of the planet as a home for humanity. Thus, attention to living nature, to man makes the tasks of forecasting ecological.

Types of forecasts. According to the lead time, the following types of forecasts are distinguished: ultra-short-term (up to a year), short-term (up to 3-5 years), medium-term (up to 10-15 years), long-term (up to several decades ahead), ultra-long-term (for millennia and more). -Lee forward). The lead time of the forecast, i.e. the period for which the forecast is given, can be very different. When designing a large industrial facility with a service life of 100–120 years, it is necessary to know what changes in the environment may occur under the influence of this facility in 2100–2200. No wonder they say: "The future is controlled from the present."

According to the coverage of the territory, global, regional, local forecasts are distinguished.

There are forecasts in specific branches of science, for example, geological, meteorological forecasts. In geography, a complex forecast, which many consider general scientific.

The main functions of monitoring are quality control of individual components of the natural environment and identification of the main sources of pollution. Based on monitoring data, decisions are made to improve the environmental situation, construct new treatment facilities at enterprises that pollute the land, atmosphere and water, change logging systems and plant new forests, introduce soil-protective crop rotations, etc.

Monitoring is most often carried out by regional committees for hydrometeorological service through a network of points conducting the following observations: surface meteorological, heat balance, hydrological, marine, etc.

For example, monitoring of Moscow includes constant analysis of the content of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, sulfur dioxide, the amount of nitrogen oxides, ozone and dust. Observations are carried out by 30 stations operating in automatic mode. Information from sensors located at the stations flows to the information processing center. Information about exceeding the MPC of pollutants is received by the Moscow Committee for Environmental Protection and the government of the capital. Both industrial emissions of large enterprises and the level of water pollution in the Moskva River are automatically controlled.

At present, there are 344 water monitoring stations in 59 countries in the world, which form the global environmental monitoring system.

Environmental monitoring

Monitoring(lat. monitor observing, warning) - a complex system of observations, assessment and forecast of changes in the state of the biosphere or its individual elements under the influence of anthropogenic influences

Main tasks of monitoring:

monitoring of sources of anthropogenic impact; monitoring the state of the natural environment and the processes occurring in it under the influence of anthropogenic factors;

forecast of changes in the natural environment under the influence of anthropogenic factors and assessment of the predicted state of the natural environment.

Classifications of monitoring by features:

Control methods:

Bioindication - detection and determination of anthropogenic loads by the reactions of living organisms and their communities to them;

Remote methods (aerial photography, sounding, etc.);

Physical and chemical methods (analysis of individual samples of air, water, soil).

environment. This system is administered by UNEP, a special body for environmental protection at the United Nations.

Types of monitoring. According to the scale of generalization of information, they distinguish: global, regional, impact monitoring.

Global Monitoring- this is monitoring of world processes and phenomena in the biosphere and the implementation of a forecast of possible changes.

Regional monitoring covers individual regions in which processes and phenomena are observed that differ from natural in nature or due to anthropogenic impact.

Impact monitoring is carried out in especially hazardous areas directly adjacent to sources of pollutants.

According to the methods of conducting, the following types of monitoring are distinguished:

Biological (using bioindicators);

Remote (aviation and space);

Analytical (chemical and physico-chemical analysis).

The objects of observation are:

Monitoring of individual components of the environment (soil, water, air);

Biological monitoring (flora and fauna).

A special type of monitoring is basic monitoring, i.e. tracking the state of natural systems, which are practically not superimposed by regional anthropogenic impacts (biosphere reserves). The whole purpose of basic monitoring is to obtain data against which the results obtained by other types of monitoring are compared.

Control methods. The composition of pollutants is determined by methods of physical and chemical analysis (in air, soil, water). The degree of stability of natural ecosystems is carried out by the bioindication method.

Bioindication is the detection and determination of anthropogenic loads by the reactions of living organisms and their communities to them. The essence of bioindication is that certain environmental factors create the possibility of the existence of a particular species. The objects of bioindicative studies can be individual species of animals and plants, as well as entire ecosystems. For example, radioactive contamination is determined by the state of coniferous trees; industrial pollution - for many representatives of the soil fauna; air pollution is very sensitively perceived by mosses, lichens, butterflies.

The species diversity and high abundance or, conversely, the absence of dragonflies (Odonata) on the shore of the reservoir speak of its faunal composition: many dragonflies - the fauna is rich, few - the aquatic fauna is depleted.

If lichens disappear on tree trunks in the forest, then sulfur dioxide is present in the air. The larvae of caddisflies (Trichoptera) are found only in clean water. But the small-scale worm (Tubifex), larvae of chironomids (Chironomidae) live only in heavily polluted water bodies. Many insects, green unicellular algae, and crustaceans live in slightly polluted water bodies.

Bioindication allows timely detection of a not yet dangerous level of pollution and taking measures to restore the ecological balance of the environment.

In some cases, the bioindication method is preferred, since it is simpler than, for example, physico-chemical methods of analysis.

So, British scientists found several molecules in the liver of flounder - indicators of pollution. When the total concentration of life-threatening substances reaches critical values, a potentially carcinogenic protein begins to accumulate in the liver cells. Its quantitative determination is simpler than the chemical analysis of water, and provides more information about its danger to human life and health.

Remote methods are mainly used for global monitoring. For example, aerial photography is an effective method for determining the extent and extent of pollution from oil spills at sea or on land, ie tanker accidents or pipeline ruptures. Other methods in these extreme situations do not provide comprehensive information.

OKB im. Ilyushin, the aircraft builders of the Lukhovitsky Plant designed and built the Il-10Z, a unique aircraft to perform almost any task of state environmental and land monitoring. The aircraft is equipped with control and measuring and telemetry equipment, a satellite navigation system (СPS), a satellite communication system, an interactive on-board and ground-based measuring and recording complex. The aircraft can fly at altitudes from 100 to 3000 m, stay in the air for up to 5 hours, consumes only 10-15 liters of fuel per 100 km, and takes on board two specialists in addition to the pilot. The new aircraft Il-103 of the Aviation Center for Special Environmental Purposes, based at the Myachikovo airfield near Moscow, perform remote monitoring for environmentalists, aviation forest protection, emergency services and oil and gas pipeline transport.

Physical and chemical methods are used to monitor individual components of the natural environment: soil, water, air. These methods are based on the analysis of individual samples.

Soil monitoring provides for the determination of acidity, loss of humus, salinity. Soil acidity is determined by the value of the pH value (pH) in aqueous soil solutions. The pH value is measured using a pH meter or potentiometer. The content of humus is determined by the oxidizability of organic matter. The amount of oxidizing agent is estimated by titrimetric or spectrometric methods. Soil salinity, i.e., the content of salts in them, is determined by the value of electrical conductivity, since it is known that salt solutions are electrolytes.

Water pollution is determined by chemical (COD) or biochemical (BOD) oxygen consumption - this is the amount of oxygen consumed for the oxidation of organic and inorganic substances contained in polluted water.

Atmospheric pollution is analyzed by gas analyzers, which provide information on the concentration of gaseous pollutants in the air. “Multicomponent” analysis methods are used: C-, H-, N-analyzers and other devices that give continuous time characteristics of air pollution. Automated devices for remote analysis of atmospheric pollution, combining a laser and a locator, are called lidars.

Environmental quality assessment

What is evaluation and evaluation?

An important area of ​​monitoring research is the assessment of the quality of the environment. This direction, as you already know, has received priority in modern nature management, since the quality of the environment is associated with the physical and spiritual health of a person.

Indeed, they distinguish between a healthy (comfortable) natural environment, in which a person's health is normal or improving, and unhealthy, in which the state of health of the population is disturbed. Therefore, in order to preserve the health of the population, it is necessary to monitor the quality of the environment. Environmental quality- this is the degree of compliance of natural conditions with the physiological capabilities of a person.

There are scientific criteria for assessing the quality of the environment. These include standards.

Environmental quality standards. Quality standards are divided into environmental and production-economic.

Ecological standards establish maximum permissible norms of anthropogenic impact on the environment, the excess of which threatens human health, is detrimental to vegetation and animals. Such norms are established in the form of maximum permissible concentrations of pollutants (MPC) and maximum permissible levels of harmful physical effects (MPL). Remote controls are installed, for example, for noise and electromagnetic pollution.

MPC is the amount of a harmful substance in the environment, which for a certain period of time does not affect human health and does not cause adverse consequences for its offspring.

Recently, when determining MPC, not only the degree of influence of pollutants on human health is taken into account, but also the impact of these pollutants on natural communities as a whole. Every year more and more MPCs are set for substances in the air, soil, and water.

Industrial and economic environmental quality standards regulate the environmentally safe mode of operation of a production, utility, and any other facility. The production and economic environmental quality standards include the maximum allowable emission of pollutants into the environment (MAE). How to improve the quality of the environment? Many experts think about this problem. Environmental quality control is carried out by a special state service. Measures to improve the quality of the environment. They are combined into the following groups. The most important are technological measures, which include the development of modern technologies that ensure the integrated use of raw materials and waste disposal. The choice of fuel with a lower combustion product will significantly reduce emissions of substances into the atmosphere. This is also facilitated by the electrification of modern production, transport and everyday life.

Sanitation measures contribute to the treatment of industrial emissions through various designs of treatment plants. (Are there treatment facilities at the nearest enterprises in your locality? How effective are they?)

The set of measures that improve the quality of the environment includes architectural planning activities that affect not only physical but also spiritual health. They include dust control, rational placement of enterprises (they are often taken out of the territory of a settlement) and residential areas, landscaping of populated areas, for example, with modern urban planning standards, cities with a population of one and a half million people need 40-50 m2 of green space , it is obligatory to allocate sanitary protection zones in the settlement.

To engineering and organizational measures include reducing parking at traffic lights, reducing the intensity of traffic on congested highways.

To legal measures include the establishment and observance of legislative acts to maintain the quality of the atmosphere, water bodies, soil, etc.

Requirements related to the protection of nature, improvement of the quality of the environment are reflected in state laws, decrees, and regulations. World experience shows that in the developed countries of the world, the authorities solve problems related to improving the quality of the environment through legislative acts and executive structures, which, together with the judicial system, are called upon to ensure the implementation of laws, finance large environmental projects and scientific developments, control enforcement of laws and financial costs.

There is no doubt that the improvement of the quality of the environment will be carried out through economic activities. Economic measures are associated, first of all, with the investment of funds in the shift and the development of new technologies that ensure energy and resource saving, and reduce emissions of harmful substances into the environment. The means of state tax and price policy should create the conditions for Russia's inclusion in the international system for ensuring environmental safety. At the same time, in our country, due to the economic downturn, the volume of introduction of new environmental technologies into the industry has significantly decreased.

educational measures are aimed at the formation of an ecological culture of the population. The quality of the environment largely depends on the formation of new value and moral attitudes, the revision of priorities, needs, and methods of human activity. In our country, within the framework of the state program "Ecology of Russia", programs and manuals for environmental education have been developed at all stages of obtaining knowledge from preschool institutions to the system of advanced training. Mass media are an important means in the formation of ecological culture. Only in Russia there are more than 50 types of environmental periodicals.

All activities aimed at improving the quality of the environment are closely interconnected and largely depend on the development of science. Therefore, the most important condition for the existence of all measures is the conduct of scientific research that improves the quality of the environment and the environmental sustainability of both the planet as a whole and individual regions.

However, it should be noted that the measures taken to improve the quality of the environment do not always bring a noticeable effect. An increase in the incidence of the population, a decrease in the average life expectancy of people, an increase in mortality indicate the development of negative environmental phenomena in our country.

14.1 The concept of environmental monitoring. Classification.

14.2 Assessment of the actual state of the environment

14.1 The concept of environmental monitoring. Classification

To detect changes in the state of the biosphere under the influence of human activity, an observation system is needed. Such a system is now commonly referred to as monitoring.

Monitoring call a system of repeated observations of one or more elements of the natural environment in space and time with specific goals and in accordance with a pre-prepared program. The concept of environmental monitoring was first introduced by R. Menn in 1972 at the UN Stockholm Conference.

Monitoring includes the following main directions activities:

Observations of factors affecting the natural environment and the state of the environment;

Assessment of the actual state of the natural environment;

Forecast of the state of the natural environment. And an assessment of this state.

Thus, monitoring is a multi-purpose information system for observing, analyzing, diagnosing and predicting the state of the natural environment, which does not include environmental quality management, but provides the necessary information for such management.

Tasks of environmental monitoring

Scientific and technical support for observation, assessment of the forecast of the state of the environment;

Monitoring the sources of pollutants and the level of environmental pollution;

Identification of sources and factors of pollution and assessment of the degree of their impact on the environment;

Assessment of the actual state of the environment;

Forecast of changes in the state of the environment and ways to improve the situation.

Monitoring classification.

By the scope of observation;

By objects of observation;

According to the level of contamination of objects of observation;

According to factors and sources of pollution;

Observation methods.

According to the scale of observation

Detailed Monitoring

The lowest hierarchical level is the level of detailed monitoring of the environment, implemented within the territories and on the scale of individual enterprises, factories, individual engineering structures, economic complexes, deposits, etc. Systems of detailed environmental monitoring are the most important link in the system of a higher rank. Their integration into a larger network forms a local level monitoring system.

Local monitoring (impact)

It is carried out in heavily polluted places (cities, settlements, water bodies, etc.) and is focused on the source of pollution. AT

Due to the proximity to sources of pollution, all the main substances that make up emissions into the atmosphere and discharge into water bodies are usually present in significant quantities. Local systems, in turn, are combined into even larger ones - regional monitoring systems.

Regional monitoring

It is carried out within a certain region, taking into account the natural character, type and intensity of technogenic impact. Regional environmental monitoring systems are combined within one state into a single national monitoring network.

National monitoring

Monitoring system within one state. Such a system differs from global monitoring not only in scale, but also in that the main task of national monitoring is to obtain information and assess the state of the environment in the national interest. In Russia, it is carried out under the leadership of the Ministry of Natural Resources. Within the framework of the UN environmental program, the task was set to unite national monitoring systems into a single interstate network - the "Global Environmental Monitoring Network" (GEMS)

Global Monitoring

The purpose of GEMS is to monitor changes in the environment on Earth as a whole, on a global scale. Global monitoring is a system for monitoring the state and forecasting possible changes in global processes and phenomena, including anthropogenic impact on the biosphere as a whole. GEMS deals with global warming, ozone layer problems, forest conservation, droughts, etc. .

By objects of observation

atmospheric air

in settlements;

different layers of the atmosphere;

stationary and mobile sources of pollution.

Ground and surface water bodies

fresh and salt water;

mixing zones;

regulated water bodies;

natural reservoirs and streams.

Geological environment

soil layer;

Biological monitoring

plants;

animals;

ecosystems;

Snow monitoring

Background radiation monitoring.

The level of contamination of objects of observation

Background (basic monitoring)

These are observations of environmental objects in relatively clean natural areas.

2. Impact

Oriented to the source of pollution or a particular polluting effect.

By factors and sources of pollution

1. Gradient monitoring

This is the physical impact on the environment. These are radiation, thermal effects, infrared, noise, vibration, etc.

2. Ingredient monitoring

This is the monitoring of a single pollutant.

By methods of observation

1. Contact methods

2. Remote methods.

Environmental monitoring- this is a set of organizational structures, methods, methods and techniques for monitoring the state of the environment, changes occurring with it, their consequences, as well as activities potentially hazardous to the environment, human health and controlled territory, production and other facilities.

Types of monitoring:

– depending on the scope of the monitoring system – global, national, regional, local;

– on the level of human alteration of the environment – background and impact;

- from the monitoring object - the actual ecological, air, water, land, wildlife, hazardous waste, radiation, social and hygienic;

– development monitoring based on demographic, environmental, social and economic indicators.

Federal Law No. 7-FZ of January 10, 2002 “On Environmental Protection” uses only two concepts:

1)environmental monitoring- an integrated system for monitoring the state of the environment, assessing and forecasting its changes under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors;

2)state environmental monitoring– environmental monitoring carried out by public authorities and its subjects.

Goals state environmental monitoring (Article 63):

– monitoring the state of the environment, including in areas where sources of anthropogenic impact are located;

– monitoring the impact of anthropogenic sources on the environment;

- meeting the needs of the state, legal entities and individuals in reliable information necessary to prevent and (or) reduce the adverse effects of changes in the state of the environment.

Subjects of environmental monitoring– executive authorities of the Russian Federation and constituent entities of the Russian Federation, local governments, specialized organizations authorized to carry out environmental monitoring functions, economic entities, public organizations.

Environmental monitoring is carried out by a special observational network. This is a system of stationary and mobile observation points, including posts, stations, laboratories, bureau centers, and observatories. A significant part of the observation network operates within the Russian Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring, other federal executive authorities and their territorial bodies.

Objects of environmental monitoring- this is the environment as a whole and its individual elements; negative changes in the quality of the environment that can have a negative impact on the health and property of people, the safety of territories; types of activities assessed by the legislation as posing a potential threat to the environment, human health and environmental safety of territories; equipment, technologies, production and other technical facilities, the existence, use, transformation and destruction of which poses a danger to the environment and human health; emergency and other sudden physical, chemical, biological and other circumstances that can have a negative impact on the environment and human health; territories and objects with a special legal status.

Goals and objectives of environmental monitoring. Classification of types of monitoring

The UNESCO program of 1974 defines monitoring as a system of regular long-term observations in space and time, providing information about the past and present state of the environment, allowing predicting future changes in its parameters, which are of particular importance for mankind.

Environmental monitoring- an information system for observing, assessing and forecasting changes in the state of the environment, created to highlight the anthropogenic component of these changes against the background of natural processes.

The environmental monitoring system should accumulate, systematize and analyze information:

1) on the state of the environment;

2) reasons for observed and likely changes in status (i.e., sources and impact factors);

3) on the admissibility of changes and loads on the environment as a whole;

4) on the existing reserves of the biosphere.

Thus, the monitoring system includes the following main procedures:

1) selection (definition) of the object of observation;

2) examination of the selected object of observation;

3) compiling an information model for the object of observation;

4) measurement planning;

5) assessment of the state of the object of observation and identification of its information model;

6) forecasting changes in the state of the object of observation;

7) presentation of information in a user-friendly form and bringing it to the consumer.

Main goals environmental monitoring consists in providing the environmental protection and environmental safety management system with timely and reliable information that allows:

1) evaluate indicators of the state and functional integrity of ecosystems and the human environment;

2) identify the causes of changes in these indicators and assess the consequences of such changes;

3) create prerequisites for determining measures to correct emerging negative situations before damage is caused.

Based on these three main objectives, environmental monitoring should focus on a set of indicators of three general types: compliance, diagnostics and early warning.

In addition to the above main goals, environmental monitoring can be aimed at achieving special program goals related to providing the necessary information for organizational and other measures for the implementation of specific environmental measures, projects, international agreements and obligations of states in relevant areas.

Main tasks environmental monitoring:

1) monitoring of sources of anthropogenic impact;

2) monitoring the factors of anthropogenic impact;

3) monitoring the state of the natural gray area and the processes occurring in it under the influence of anthropogenic factors;

4) assessment of the actual state of the natural environment;

5) forecast of changes in the state of the natural environment under the influence of factors of anthropogenic impact and assessment of the predicted state of the natural environment.

The passive monitoring system does not include environmental quality management activities, but is a source of information necessary for making environmentally significant decisions. Active monitoring involves the adoption of environmentally significant decisions and active regulatory actions, which is closely related to environmental control.

Global OS Monitoring

In the 1960s, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) established a worldwide network of background air pollution monitoring stations (BAPMON). Its goal was to obtain information on the background levels of concentrations of atmospheric constituents, their variations and long-term changes, which can be used to judge the impact of human activities on the state of the atmosphere.

In the 1970s, a decision was made to create a Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) designed to monitor the background state of the biosphere as a whole and, first of all, its pollution processes.

In 1974, within the framework of the UN program, the concept of global monitoring of the environment was developed. In this program, emphasis is placed on defining monitoring objectives.

In 1986, the UN issued a guidebook on "Environmental Monitoring" ed. Klarna. The program "Global Environmental Monitoring Systems" deployed there has 7 directions:

1) organization and expansion of a warning system about a threat to human health;

2) assessment of global atmospheric pollution and its impact on climate;

3) assessment and distribution of contaminants in food chains;

4) assessment of critical land use problems;

5) assessment of ecosystem responses to environmental pollution;

6) assessment of ocean pollution;

7) natural disaster warning system.

Global monitoring involves the development of full-scale computer simulation models: ocean, atmosphere, climate, lithosphere, models of interaction between the listed geospheres. On the basis of these global models, it is possible to play various scenarios for the development of society, for example: local nuclear conflicts; local man-made disasters associated with accidents at nuclear facilities; scenario of unfavorable development of industry and technosphere; scenario of unfavorable development of economic relations, which leads to a chain of man-made disasters.

These models make sense only when full-fledged measurement information is received from other parts of the monitoring. There are several operating space monitoring systems here. This is the Earth observation system "EOS", which has been operating since 1995. The satellites are launched into an orbit at an altitude of 824 km.

Background atmospheric monitoring stations (BAPMON stations) are responsible for conducting observations and timely sending the received primary data to the hydrometeorological departments (UGM) and the Main Geophysical Observatory (GGO) named after A.I. A.I. Voeikova.

Integrated background monitoring stations(SCFM) - their location in terms of its landscape and climatic characteristics should be representative of the region. The assessment of representativeness begins with the analysis of climatic, topographic, soil, botanical, geological and other materials.

The SCFM includes a stationary observation site and a chemical laboratory. The observation range consists of sampling sites, hydroposts and, in some cases, observation wells. The chemical laboratory of the station is located at a distance of no closer than 500 m from the reference site; the laboratory processes and analyzes that part of the samples that cannot be sent to the regional laboratory.

BAPMON stations- background stations are divided into three categories: base, regional and continental.

Basic stations should be located in the cleanest places, in the mountains, on isolated islands. The main task of base stations is to control the global background level of atmospheric pollution, which is not influenced by any local sources.

Regional stations should be located in rural areas, at least 40 km from major sources of pollution. Their purpose is to detect long-term fluctuations in atmospheric components in the station area due to changes in land use and other anthropogenic impacts.

Continental stations cover a wider range of studies than regional stations. They should be located in remote areas so that there are no sources within a radius of 100 km that could affect local pollution levels.

Surveillance programs at stations

At the CFM stations, a comprehensive study of the content of pollutants in the components of ecosystems is being implemented. In this regard, the SCFM observation program includes systematic measurements of the content of pollutants simultaneously in all media, supplemented by hydrometeorological data.

AT atmospheric air average daily concentrations are subject to measurement: suspended solids; ozone; oxides of carbon and nitrogen; sulfur dioxide; sulfates; 3,4-benz(a)pyrene; DDT and other organochlorine compounds; lead, cadmium, mercury, arsenic, indicator of aerosol turbidity of the atmosphere.

Meteorological observations include observations of: air temperature and humidity; wind speed and direction; atmospheric pressure; cloudiness; sunshine; atmospheric phenomena (fog, blizzards, thunderstorms, dust storms, etc.); atmospheric precipitation; snow cover; soil temperature; radiation and radiation balance, etc.

Space sounding.

Space images of the Earth are obtained from a height of more than a hundred kilometers. Three groups of the most commonly used orbits can be distinguished by height:

a) 100-500 km (these are the orbits of manned spacecraft, orbital stations, and reconnaissance satellites with the most characteristic heights of 200-400 km); for detailed shooting

b) 500-2000 km (orbits of resource and meteorological satellites, resource lower (600-900 km), meteorological - higher (900-1400 km)); for less detailed, but more operational and territorially more captivating shooting

c) 36000-40000 km (geostationary satellite orbits) for continuous observation.

The geometric resolution of an image is the physical area of ​​a rectangular (usually square) area of ​​the terrain, which is displayed on the image as the smallest point (pixel). The value of geometric resolution is expressed in the length of the sides of this rectangle (usually a square).

Satellite images allow you to quickly (within 1-2 months from the moment of the survey) create digital maps for large areas of the territory, special cartographic materials. Problems such as the choice of sites for inspections (“reconnaissance”) can be solved with the use of satellite imagery.

The cost of one image taken from a foreign spacecraft is rarely less than $2,000.

The more complex the image is supposed to be used, the more profitable it becomes to acquire it.

Physical basis of remote sensing.

Methods for remote sensing of the Earth from space can be divided into two large classes: passive and active.

Methods passive Remote sensing of the Earth (ERS) from space is based on the registration of reflected solar radiation, summed with the own radiation of the atmosphere, clouds and land cover and attenuated in the atmosphere.

At present, space multispectral systems with IR channels, reliably functioning in orbit, make it possible, based on a priori information about the thermal properties of soils, rocks, ores, minerals and materials, to successfully interpret satellite images, detect various anomalies and build temperature maps of the earth's surface and ocean, the state of vegetation cover etc.

In addition, IR imaging is successfully used to detect and delineate underground fires, a permanent geothermal field, and underground heating mains.

The use of multi-zonal surveys for the study of water bodies is very specific and effective. For them, it provides additional features that are not implemented by other methods. Underwater objects are deciphered at depths from several meters to tens of meters. A special advantage lies in the use of a series of zonal images as different-depth sections of the water column and the bottom surface due to the ability of rays of different spectral ranges to penetrate to unequal depths - the largest (up to 20 m) for the rays of the blue range and the smallest - for the rays of the near-IR spectral region. These properties open up possibilities for studying the distribution of suspended matter in water - natural pollution of water bodies by solid runoff of rivers, etc. This makes it possible to draw up maps of underwater landscapes with their complex characteristics for shallow water areas, but it is precisely the tasks of developing and monitoring the shelf that have now become of paramount importance.

Multizone satellite images are very informative for determining the snow cover. Freshly fallen snow reflects about 95% of solar radiation in the wavelength range of 0.3 - 0.9 µm. In the visible region of the spectrum, snow is a white body, and in the IR region (wavelength 10 μm) it is an absolutely black body with a temperature below 0 degrees. FROM.

Active Remote sensing is carried out in the visible range using lidars(532nm), but mainly in the radio range.

When sounding from space, the microwave range of waves is used - from millimeters to several centimeters. In this range, the Earth's atmosphere is highly transparent; therefore, radiometers and radars almost always make it possible to carry out sounding of the earth's covers, and, moreover, regardless of the presence of clouds.

The penetrating power of radio waves makes it possible to obtain special information about land cover that cannot be extracted from observations in the optical range. So, to a certain extent, radio waves make it possible to "overcome" the screening effect of vegetation cover and obtain information directly about properties of earth soils.

On the other hand, with the help of radio waves, deep sounding of soil, snow, ice, which makes it possible to make more objective judgments about the physical state of the earth's covers.

Comprehensive study of natural resources

The greatest technical and economic effect from the use of Earth space sensing data can be obtained with a comprehensive study and mapping of natural resources. Integrated study and mapping based on space information implies obtaining new information about natural resources by their main types and territorial combinations by interpreting satellite imagery materials and their joint analysis with data from traditional studies.

Scanner surveys of the Earth and the reception of digital space images from modern satellites, as well as the widespread development of geoinformation systems, make it possible to compile digital electronic thematic maps. This is a qualitatively new stage in cartography, which opens up wide opportunities for complex analysis and application by various consumers.
Search for minerals.

The use of space methods makes it possible to conduct regional geological surveys more quickly and efficiently. At the same time, the cost of geological survey of 1 km2 of the territory is reduced by 15-20%.

The introduction of space research into the complex of oil and gas prospecting provides information on discontinuous and folded tectonics and the deep structure of the earth's crust. Aerospace methods play an important role both in the additional exploration of deposits and in their operation.

Environmental studies

The currently functioning space systems for natural history, meteorological and oceanological purposes can be effectively used in the interests of environmental studies of a global, regional and local nature.

For example, the drying dynamics of the Aral Sea was recorded from the orbital stations.

Such images make it possible to monitor the spread of oil slicks and organize effective work to eliminate the consequences of accidents.

Satellite images not only detect forest fires, but also predict the danger of their occurrence, and assess damage from forest fires.

Air quality regulation

Air quality- a set of atmospheric properties that determines the degree of impact of physical, chemical and biological factors on people, flora and fauna, as well as on materials, structures and the environment as a whole.

Air quality standards define the permissible limits for the content of harmful substances both in the industrial and in the residential area (intended for housing stock, public buildings and structures) of settlements.

MPC rz - concentration, which during daily (except weekends) work for 8 hours, or for other duration, but not more than 41 hours per week, throughout the entire working experience should not cause diseases or deviations in the state of health detected by modern methods research, in the course of work or in the remote periods of life of the present and subsequent generations.

It is absolutely unacceptable to compare the levels of pollution in the residential area with the established MPC rz, and also to talk about the MPC in the air in general, without specifying which standard is being discussed.

MPC mr - the concentration of a harmful substance in the air populated areas, which does not cause reflex (including subsensory) reactions in the human body when inhaled for 20 minutes. As a result of the dispersion of impurities in the air under adverse meteorological conditions at the border of the sanitary protection zone of the enterprise, the concentration of a harmful substance at any time should not exceed the MPC mr.

MPC cc is the concentration of a harmful substance in the air populated areas, which should not have a direct or indirect effect on a person with an unlimited long (years) inhalation. Thus, MPC ss is the most stringent sanitary and hygienic standard that establishes the concentration of a harmful substance in the air.

Normalized characteristics of air pollution are sometimes called ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION INDEX (API). In practical work, a large number of different APIs are used. Some of them are based on indirect indicators of atmospheric pollution, for example, on the visibility of the atmosphere, on the transparency coefficient.

Various ISAs, which can be divided into 2 main groups:

1. Single indices of atmospheric pollution by one impurity.

2. Comprehensive indicators of atmospheric pollution by several substances.

Single indexes include:

* Coefficient for expressing the concentration of an impurity in MPC units (a), i.e. the value of the maximum or average concentration, reduced to MPC: a = Ci / MPC

Complex indexes include:

* The Comprehensive City Air Pollution Index (CIPA) is a quantitative characteristic of the level of air pollution created by n substances present in the atmosphere of the city: In = SIi

where Ii is a single index of atmospheric pollution by the i-th substance.

Water quality regulation

In accordance with the Sanitary Rules and Norms SanPiN 2.1.4.559-96, drinking water must be safe in epidemic and radiation terms, harmless in chemical composition and must have favorable organoleptic properties. The quality of water as a whole is understood as a characteristic of its composition and properties, which determines its suitability for specific types of water use; at the same time, quality indicators are signs by which water quality is assessed.

The maximum allowable concentration in the water of a reservoir for drinking and domestic water use (PEEP) is the concentration of a harmful substance in water, which should not have a direct or indirect effect on the human body throughout its life and on the health of subsequent generations, and should not worsen the hygienic conditions of water use.

The maximum permissible concentration in the water of a reservoir used for fishery purposes (MPCvr) is the concentration of a harmful substance in water, which should not have a harmful effect on fish populations, primarily commercial ones.

Assessment of water quality and comparison of the current state of the water body with the characteristics established in previous years are carried out on the basis of the water pollution index by hydrochemical indicators (WPI). This index is a formal characteristic and is calculated by averaging at least five individual water quality indicators. The following indicators are obligatory for accounting: concentration of dissolved oxygen, pH value and biological oxygen demand BOD5.

In addition, to determine WPI, the value of oxygen dissolved in water and BOD20 (general sanitary LPV), a bacteriological indicator - the number of lactose-positive Escherichia coli (LPKP) in 1 liter of water, smell and taste are used. The water pollution index is determined in accordance with the hygienic classification of water bodies according to the degree of pollution.

Soil quality regulation

In the USSR, only one standard was established that determines the permissible level of soil pollution with harmful chemicals - MPC for the arable soil layer (MPCp) - this is the concentration of a harmful substance in the upper, arable soil layer, which should not have a direct or indirect negative effect on those in contact with the soil environment and human health, as well as the self-cleaning capacity of the soil.

The assessment of the level of chemical pollution of soils in settlements is carried out according to indicators developed in the course of associated geochemical and hygienic studies of the environment of cities. Such indicators are the concentration coefficient of the chemical element Kc and the total pollution index Zc.

Concentration factor is defined as the ratio of the actual content of the element in the soil C to the background C f: K c \u003d C / C f.

Since soils are often contaminated with several elements at once, they calculate total pollution index, reflecting the effect of the influence of a group of elements:

n is the number of elements to be taken into account.

The assessment of the danger of soil contamination by a complex of elements in terms of Zc is carried out according to an assessment scale, the gradations of which are developed on the basis of a study of the health status of the population living in territories with different levels of soil contamination.

17. Organization of ecoanalytical control.

The monitoring is based on the system for determining the concentrations of pollutants in environmental objects - the system of environmental analytical control (EAC).

EAC is a system of measures to identify and assess the sources and level of pollution of natural objects with harmful substances as a result of discharges or emissions of these substances into the environment by natural resources users, as well as due to natural formation and accumulation in environmental objects, including due to the chemical and biochemical transformation of natural and technogenic substances into compounds with harmful properties.

Three main functions of the EAC can be distinguished:

Obtaining primary information about the content of harmful substances in the environment and making decisions on the basis of this information to prevent further entry of these substances into water, air, soil, bottom sediments, vegetation cover or the need to clean these objects from already accumulated pollutants;

Obtaining secondary information on the effectiveness of activities carried out on the basis of primary information;

· formation of initial data for making decisions of an economic, legal, social and environmental nature in relation to users of natural resources, districts and regions with a difficult environmental situation, including the assessment of real estate during its privatization or sale.

Organization and provision of EAK require the solution of a complex of interrelated problems that form the following single system: Normative and technical support and legal regulation - Controlled objects and components - Methodological support - Hardware - Metrological support - Quality assurance of chemical information - Staffing

Normative and technical support and legal regulation of the EAK system

From the point of view of environmental legislation, the regulation of individual stages of the EAK (sampling, conservation and transportation of samples, sample preparation, processing and issuance of analysis results, their introduction into the computer memory, as well as the regulation of the nomenclature of harmful substances to be determined and their maximum permissible concentrations (MAC)) is the legal basis for substantiating the requirements for analysis methods, analytical instruments and other measuring instruments that should be used for EAC.

Normative and technical support also includes documents regulating the analysis algorithms. It is necessary to develop uniform NTDs that regulate the requirements for the organization and conduct of the EAC, taking into account its specifics for each of the structures associated with it.

Methodological support of the EAK system

A huge number of methods for analyzing objects of the natural environment have been developed, but only a part of them can be applied in the EAC system, since in terms of their performance indicators, including analytical and metrological characteristics, they do not meet the requirements of the EAC. In addition, a large group of techniques is implemented on unique analytical equipment, which is available in Russia in single copies (for example, high-resolution chromato-mass spectrometers). Documents regulating methods for analyzing environmental objects must have a certain regulatory, technical and legal status: such methods must be certified and put into effect. So far, the vast majority of the methods used for EAK have not been certified. Conducting an EAC using non-certified methods immediately casts doubt on the reliability of the test results. Based on such results, neither sanctions nor management decisions can be taken.

EAK system hardware

For EAK devices, the question of substantiating the requirements for the conditions of their operation is fundamental. All EAK devices, whether manufactured or under development, can be divided into two groups: general-purpose devices and specialized devices.

The first group includes devices, the use of which is not strictly related to the specifics of the controlled object or the indicator being determined, i.e. it is possible to use them for a large number of methods of analysis. The second group includes devices designed to determine a specific component in a specific test object.

Devices of both groups can be used in the EAC if there is a mandatory methodological support.

Quality assurance of chemical information

In EAK, the information received serves as the foundation for making policy decisions and prescribing rules. The quality of analytical information is determined by the degree of its reliability. Works to ensure the quality of the results of chemical analysis in the field of EAC are of a narrow departmental nature and do not apply to the entire EAC system, since quality control of the data of nature users is not carried out at all. Thus, it is necessary to create a common system for ensuring the quality of analytical work, which should be regulated by the relevant NTD.

Controlled objects and components in ecoanalytical control

The scope of environmental analytical control includes the following controlled objects:

water - fresh, surface, sea, underground, atmospheric precipitation, melted water, sewage;

air - atmospheric, natural reserves (background), cities and industrial zones, working zone;

soil (in terms of pollution);

bottom sediments (in the same aspect);

Plants, food and feed, animal tissues (in the same aspect).

Requirements for measuring instruments

Various regulatory documents in the field of ensuring the uniformity of measurements impose rather stringent requirements on measuring instruments (SI) used in eco-analytical work.

1. First of all, MI must be tested in order to approve the type of measuring instruments.

2. Regulatory documents set the lower limit for the detection of a pollutant in environmental objects - usually it ranges from 0.1 MPC (for soil) to 0.8 MPC (for atmospheric air). When choosing SI, this fact must also be taken into account.

3. Particular attention should be paid to compliance with the measurement error standards established by regulatory documents during the measurement process. For universal-purpose measuring instruments (spectrophotometers, polarographs, chromatographs, etc.), the provision of measuring instruments with certified measurement methods (hereinafter referred to as MMI) is of great importance.

4. For the convenience of storing and processing the measurement results, the device must be equipped with an output that allows its interface with a computer.

5. low cost of operation of the device.

6. Devices intended for mass analysis should not require very high qualifications of the performer.

7. For imported devices, it is essential to have technical documentation in Russian, as well as Russian-language software for SI.

8. Repairing an appliance doesn't have to be very expensive.

9. Separate requirements are imposed on MI containing sources of ionizing radiation. Such measuring instruments are subject to mandatory registration with the bodies of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Ministry of Health of Russia, and the operation of such measuring instruments without obtaining an appropriate license from Gosatomnadzor of Russia is prohibited.

Classification of ecoanalytical tools

Currently, there are several classifications of measuring instruments.

Thus, the means of ecoanalytical measurements can be divided into three groups:

Automatic and non-automatic

Mobile and stationary (wearable, portable, transportable),

analyzers and signaling devices,

universal SI- measuring the content of almost any substances of various classes (for example, a spectrophotometer), group- analyzing a number of similar substances of the same class or group (motor vehicle exhaust gas analyzer) and targeted- specific to specific substances (for example, CO analyzer, Hg vapor analyzer);

for the analyzed environment: gas analyzers, aqua - analyzers, analyzers of loose bodies.

according to the method of registering the results: analog and digital.

One of the most widely used is the classification by measurement method.

When all the above grounds are combined and with further detailing of measuring instruments according to the characteristics of the analyzed media, a widely used at present in practice is formed. "pragmatic" SI classification, which is used, including when introducing the Russian State Register of SI. The division of measuring instruments into groups and subgroups in it is carried out according to the controlled environment, according to its features, and then according to methods, classes and types of substances to be determined.

19. National system of observation and control of atmospheric air OGSNK is an integral part of the National System of Observations and Control (OGSNK) for the state of the natural environment.

The main tasks of the OGCOS are the same as those of the entire OGCOS system.

OGSONK consists of two levels of monitoring:

1) impact monitoring;

2) regional monitoring, including background.

In Russia, there is a network of stations that monitors the content of pollutants in the atmosphere. These stations are located in 253 cities. The number of stationary posts is determined depending on the population in the city, the area of ​​​​the settlement, the terrain and the degree of industrialization. Depending on the population, the following is established: 1 post - up to 50 thousand inhabitants; 2 posts - 50-100 thousand inhabitants; 2-3 posts - 100-200 thousand inhabitants; 3-5 posts - 200-500 thousand inhabitants; 5-10 posts - more than 500 thousand inhabitants; 10-20 posts (stationary and route) - more than 1 million inhabitants.

The observation system is based on: regularity, unity of the observation program, representativeness of the position of the stationary post. Data processing is carried out in GGO them. A.I. Voeikov in St. Petersburg. Usually, up to 8 pollutants are measured at each post, but given that each industrial center has its own environmental specifics and 3B set, up to 80 components can be measured.

The prerogative of controlling sources of pollution (emissions, pipes, etc.) belongs to the environmental protection departments of the enterprises themselves in contact with the sanitary and hygienic services. The remaining three levels of control are carried out by services, institutes and institutions of Roskomhydromet.

Organization of observations for air pollution

Monitoring of the level of atmospheric pollution is carried out at posts. An observation post is a chosen place (point of terrain), where a pavilion or a car equipped with appropriate devices is placed.

Observation posts of 3 categories are established: stationary(continuous recording or regular sampling), route(for regular air sampling when it is impossible or impractical to install a fixed post), mobile(under-flare - under a smoke (gas) torch in order to identify the zone of influence of a given source of industrial emissions).

In addition to observations in cities, observations are carried out outside urban areas, including in nature reserves, which make it possible to estimate the background pollution resulting from the transport of pollutants by atmospheric flows, and at individual stations - the natural background content of substances in the atmosphere.

Simultaneously with air sampling, the direction and speed of the wind, air temperature, weather conditions and the underlying surface are determined.

List of substances for measurement is established on the basis of information about the composition and nature of emissions from pollution sources and meteorological conditions for the dispersion of impurities.

After choosing the main impurities to be controlled, the order of organization of control over specific impurities emitted by different sources is determined.

Monitoring of the main 3B content is organized at the reference stationary posts: dust, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxide and nitrogen dioxide, as well as specific substances that are typical for industrial emissions from enterprises in a given city.

20. Means of control of air and other gaseous media. Air sampling.

The means of control are divided into: systems(complexes), appliances, other technical means of pollution control (TSKZ) of the air basin with their grouping according to the characteristics of the analyzed air environment

By degree of automation: automatic automation and gas detectors, and non-automatic devices and other means of control.

In the laboratory eco-analytical control of pollutants in the air, technology is mainly used with separate sampling and measurement procedures for samples. At the same time, among the universal laboratory analysis instruments, which implement at least 130 methods for measuring atmospheric pollutants, there are the following types of tools:

photometers and spectrophotometers 50% (>60 methods),

chromatographs 20% (30),

atomic absorption spectrometers 10% (15),

potentiometric devices 4% (5),

Fluorometers and titrators 2.5% each (3 each),

coulometers and weighing instruments 1.5% each (2 each),

Environmental monitoring

Introduction

The environmental monitoring system should accumulate, systematize and analyze information:
on the state of the environment;
about the causes of observed and probable changes in state (i.e. about
sources and factors of influence);
on the admissibility of changes and loads on the environment as a whole;
about the existing reserves of the biosphere.
Thus, the environmental monitoring system includes observations of the state of the elements of the biosphere and observations of the sources and factors of anthropogenic impact.
In accordance with the above definitions and the functions assigned to the system, monitoring includes three main areas of activity:
monitoring the impact factors and the state of the environment;
assessment of the actual state of the environment;
forecast of the state of the environment and assessment
predicted state.

It should be taken into account that the monitoring system itself does not include environmental quality management activities, but is a source of information necessary for making environmentally significant decisions.
The main tasks of environmental monitoring:
monitoring of sources of anthropogenic impact;
observation of anthropogenic impact factors;
observation of the state of the natural environment and what is happening in it
processes under the influence of anthropogenic factors;
assessment of the actual state of the natural environment;
forecast of changes in the state of the natural environment under the influence of factors
anthropogenic impact and assessment of the predicted state
natural environment.
Environmental monitoring of the environment can be developed at the level of an industrial facility, city, region, territory, republic as part of a federation.

The nature and mechanism of generalization of information about the environmental situation as it moves through the hierarchical levels of the environmental monitoring system is determined using the concept of an information portrait of the environmental situation. The latter is a set of graphically presented spatially distributed data characterizing the ecological situation in a certain area, together with the map base of the area.
When developing an environmental monitoring project, the following information is required:

Sources of pollutants entering the environment - emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere by industrial, energy, transport and others, leading to the release of hazardous substances into the atmosphere and the spill of liquid pollutants and hazardous substances, etc.;

Transfers of pollutants - processes of atmospheric transfer; processes of transfer and migration in the aquatic environment;

Processes of landscape-geochemical redistribution of pollutants - migration of pollutants along the soil profile to the level of groundwater; migration of pollutants along the landscape-geochemical conjugation, taking into account geochemical barriers and
biochemical cycles; biochemical circulation, etc.;

Data on the state of anthropogenic sources of pollution - the power of the source of pollution and its location, hydrodynamic conditions for the entry of pollution into the environment.

It should be taken into account that the monitoring system itself does not include environmental quality management activities, but is a source of information necessary for making environmentally significant decisions. The term control, which is often used in the Russian-language literature to describe the analytical determination of certain parameters (for example, control of the composition of atmospheric air, control of water quality in reservoirs), should be used only in relation to activities involving the adoption of active regulatory measures.

"Environmental control" is the activity of state bodies, enterprises and citizens to comply with environmental norms and rules. There are state, industrial and public environmental control.
The legislative framework for environmental control is regulated by the Law of the Russian Federation "On Environmental Protection";
1. Environmental control sets its tasks: monitoring
the state of the environment and its change under the influence of economic and
other activities; verification of the implementation of plans and measures for the protection
nature, rational use of natural resources, health improvement
environment, compliance
environmental legislation and environmental quality standards.
2. The environmental control system consists of a public service
monitoring of the state of the environment, state,
production, public control. Thus, in
environmental legislation state monitoring service
defined in fact as part of the overall system of environmental control.

Classification of environmental monitoring

There are various approaches to the classification of monitoring (according to the nature of the tasks to be solved, the levels of organization, and the natural environments being monitored). The classification shown in Figure 2 covers the entire block of environmental monitoring, monitoring the changing abiotic component of the biosphere and the response of ecosystems to these changes. Thus, environmental monitoring includes both geophysical and biological aspects, which determines a wide range of research methods and techniques used in its implementation.

As already noted, the implementation of environmental monitoring in the Russian Federation is the responsibility of various government services. This leads to some uncertainty (at least for the public) regarding the distribution of responsibilities of civil services and the availability of information about the sources of impact, the state of the environment and natural resources. The situation is aggravated by periodic restructuring of ministries and departments, their mergers and divisions.

At the regional level, environmental monitoring and/or control is usually charged with:
Committee for Ecology (monitoring and control of emissions and discharges
operating enterprises).
Committee for Hydrometeorology and Monitoring (impact, regional and partly
background monitoring).
Sanitary and Epidemiological Service of the Ministry of Health (condition of workers, residential and
recreational areas, the quality of drinking water and food).
Ministry of Natural Resources (primarily geological and
hydrogeological observations).
Enterprises that carry out emissions and discharges into the environment
(monitoring and control of own emissions and discharges).
Various departmental structures (subdivisions of the Ministry of Agriculture and Food, Ministry of Emergency Situations,
Ministry of Fuel and Energy, water and sewer enterprises, etc.)
In order to effectively use the information already received by public services, it is important to know exactly the functions of each of them in the field of environmental monitoring (Taol_ 2).
Powerful professional forces are involved in the system of official environmental monitoring. Is there still a need for public environmental monitoring? Is there a place for it in the general monitoring system that exists in the Russian Federation?
In order to answer these questions, let's consider the levels of environmental monitoring adopted in Russia (Fig. 4).

Ideally, an impact monitoring system should accumulate and analyze detailed information about specific sources of pollution and their impact on the environment. But in the system that has developed in the Russian Federation, information about the activities of enterprises and the state of the environment in the zone of their influence is mostly averaged or based on statements by the enterprises themselves. Most of the available materials reflect the nature of the dispersion of pollutants in air and water, established using model calculations, and the results of measurements (quarterly - for water, annual or less frequent - for air). The state of the environment is sufficiently fully described only in large cities and industrial zones.

In the field of regional monitoring, observations are carried out mainly by Roshydromet, which has an extensive network, as well as by some departments (agrochemical service of the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Sewerage Service, etc.). And, finally, there is a network of background monitoring carried out within the framework of the MAB (Man and Biosphere) program. Practically not covered by the observation network are small towns and numerous settlements, the vast majority of diffuse sources of pollution. The monitoring of the state of the aquatic environment, organized primarily by Roshydromet and, to some extent, by the sanitary and epidemiological (SES) and communal (Vodokanal) services, does not cover the vast majority of small rivers. At the same time, it is known that< загрязнение больших рек в значительной части обусловлено вкладом разветвленной сети их притоков и хозяйственной деятельностью в водосборе. В условиях сокращения общего числ; постов наблюдений очевидно, что государство в настоящее время не располагает ресурсами для организации сколько-нибудь эффективной системы мониторинга состояния малых рек.

Thus, white spots are clearly marked on the ecological map, where systematically! observations are not made. Moreover, within the framework of the state environmental monitoring network, there are no prerequisites for their organization in these places. It is these blind spots that can (and often should) become objects of public environmental monitoring. The practical orientation of monitoring, the concentration of efforts on local problems, combined with a well-thought-out scheme and correct interpretation of the data obtained, make it possible to effectively use the resources available to the public. In addition, these features of public monitoring create serious prerequisites for organizing a constructive dialogue aimed at consolidating the efforts of all participants. Global environmental monitoring system. In 1975 The Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) was organized under the auspices of the UN, but it began to operate effectively only recently. This system consists of 5 interrelated subsystems: the study of climate change, long-range transport of pollutants, hygienic aspects of the environment, research of the World Ocean and land resources. There are 22 networks of active stations of the global monitoring system, as well as international and national monitoring systems. One of the main ideas of monitoring is reaching a fundamentally new level of competence when making decisions on a local, regional and global scale.

The concept of public environmental expertise arose in the late 80s and quickly became widespread. The original interpretation of this term was very broad. An independent environmental review meant a variety of ways to obtain and analyze information (environmental monitoring, environmental impact assessment, independent research, etc.). Currently, the concept of public environmental expertise is defined by law. "Ecological expertise" - establishing the compliance of the planned economic and other activities with environmental requirements and the admissibility of the implementation of the object of expertise in order to prevent possible adverse effects of this activity on the environment and related social, economic and other consequences of the implementation of the object of environmental expertise.

Environmental expertise can be state and public. Public environmental expertise is carried out at the initiative of citizens and public organizations (associations), as well as at the initiative of local governments by public organizations (associations).
The objects of the state ecological expertise are:
draft master plans for the development of territories,
all types of urban planning documentation (for example, master plan, building project),
draft schemes for the development of sectors of the national economy,
projects of interstate investment programs, projects of integrated schemes for nature protection, schemes for the protection and use of natural resources (including projects for land use and forest management, materials justifying the transfer of forest lands to non-forest lands),
draft international treaties,
substantiation materials for licenses to carry out activities that can have an impact on the environment,
feasibility studies and projects for construction, reconstruction, expansion, technical re-equipment, conservation and liquidation of organizations and other objects of economic activity, regardless of their estimated cost, departmental affiliation and ownership,
draft technical documentation for new equipment, technology, materials, substances, certified goods and services.
Public ecological expertise can be carried out in relation to the same objects as the state ecological expertise, with the exception of objects, information about which constitutes a state, commercial and (or) other secret protected by law.
The purpose of the environmental review is to prevent possible adverse effects of the proposed activity on the environment and related socio-economic and other consequences.

According to the Law, ecological expertise is based on the principle of presumption of potential environmental hazard of any planned economic or other activity. This means that the responsibility of the customer (the owner of the proposed activity) is to predict the impact of the proposed activity on the environment and justify the admissibility of this impact. The customer is also obliged to provide for the necessary measures to protect the environment, and it is on him that the burden of proving the environmental safety of the proposed activity lies. Foreign experience testifies to the high economic efficiency of environmental expertise. The US Environmental Protection Agency performed a selective analysis of environmental impact reports. In half of the cases studied, there was a decrease in the total cost of projects due to the implementation of constructive environmental measures. According to the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, a possible increase in the cost of projects associated with an environmental impact assessment and subsequent consideration of environmental restrictions in working projects pays off in an average of 5-7 years. According to Western experts, the inclusion of environmental factors in the decision-making process even at the design stage turns out to be 3-4 times cheaper than the subsequent one before the installation of treatment equipment. Today, the network of observations of sources of influence and the state of the biosphere already covers the entire globe. The Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) was created by the joint efforts of the world community (the main provisions and goals of the program were formulated in 1974 at the First Intergovernmental Monitoring Meeting).
The priority task was to organize monitoring of environmental pollution and the impact factors causing it.

The monitoring system is implemented at several levels, which correspond to specially developed programs:
impact (study of strong impacts on a local scale in - and);
regional (manifestation of the problems of migration and transformation of pollutants, the combined impact of various factors characteristic of the economy of the region - R);
background (on the basis of biosphere reserves, where any economic activity is excluded - F).
The program of impact monitoring can be directed, for example, to the study of discharges or emissions from a particular enterprise. The subject of regional monitoring, as follows from its very name, is the state of the environment within a given region. Finally, background monitoring, carried out within the framework of the international program Man and the Biosphere, aims to fix the background state of the environment, which is necessary for further assessments of the levels of anthropogenic impact.
Observation programs are formed according to the principle of choosing pollutants and their corresponding characteristics. The determination of these pollutions in the organization of monitoring systems depends on the purpose and objectives of specific programs: for example, on a territorial scale, the priority of state monitoring systems is given to cities, drinking water sources and fish spawning grounds; with regard to the observation environments, the atmospheric air and water of fresh water bodies deserve priority attention. The priority of ingredients is determined taking into account criteria that reflect the toxic properties of pollutants, the volume of their entry into the environment, the characteristics of their transformation, the frequency and magnitude of exposure to humans and biota, the possibility of organizing measurements, and other factors.

State environmental monitoring

The GEMS is based on national monitoring systems that operate in various states in accordance with both international requirements and specific approaches that have developed historically or are determined by the nature of the most acute environmental problems. International requirements to be met by national GEMS member systems include uniform principles for developing programs (taking into account priority impact factors), obligatory observations of objects of global significance, and transmission of information to the GEMS Center. On the territory of the USSR in the 70s, on the basis of hydrometeorological service stations, the All-State Service for Observation and Control of the State of the Environment (OGSNK) was organized, built on a hierarchical principle.

Rice. 3. Tray of information in the hierarchical system of OGCOS

In a processed and systematized form, the information obtained is presented in cadastral publications, such as Annual data on the composition and quality of land surface waters (according to hydrochemical and hydrobiological indicators), Yearbook of the state of the atmosphere in cities and industrial centers, etc. Until the end of the 80s, all cadastral publications were marked for official use, then for 3-5 years they were open and available in central libraries. To date, massive collections such as the Annual Data ... are practically not received by libraries. Some materials can be obtained (purchased) from the regional divisions of Roshydromet.
In addition to OGSNK, which is part of the system of Roshydromet (Russian Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring), environmental monitoring is carried out by a number of services, ministries and departments.
Unified state system of environmental monitoring
In order to radically increase the efficiency of work to preserve and improve the state of the environment, ensure human environmental safety in the Russian Federation "On the Creation of the Unified State System of Environmental Monitoring" (EGSEM).
EGSEM solves the following tasks:
development of programs for monitoring the state of the environment (OS) on the territory of Russia, in its individual regions and districts;
organization of observations and measurements of indicators of environmental monitoring objects;
ensuring the reliability and comparability of observational data both in individual regions and districts, and throughout Russia;
collection and processing of observational data;
organizing the storage of observational data, maintaining special data banks characterizing the ecological situation on the territory of Russia and in its individual regions;
harmonization of banks and databases of environmental information with international environmental information systems;
assessment and forecast of the state of environmental protection objects and anthropogenic impacts on them, natural resources, responses of ecosystems and public health to changes in the state of environmental protection systems;
organization and implementation of operational control and precision changes in radioactive and chemical contamination as a result of accidents and catastrophes, as well as forecasting the environmental situation and assessing the damage caused to the OPS;
ensuring the availability of integrated environmental information to a wide range of consumers, including the public, social movements and organizations;
information support of the management bodies of the state of the environmental protection system, natural resources and environmental safety;
development and implementation of a unified scientific and technical policy in the field of environmental monitoring;
creation and improvement of organized, legal, regulatory, methodological, methodological, informational, software-mathematical, hardware and technical support for the functioning of the USSEM.
EGSEM, in turn, includes the following main components:
monitoring of sources of anthropogenic impact on the environment;
monitoring of pollution of the abiotic component of the natural environment;
monitoring of the biotic component of the natural environment;
socio-hygienic monitoring;
ensuring the creation and functioning of environmental information systems.

At the same time, the distribution of functions between the central executive federal authorities is carried out as follows.
State Committee for Ecology: coordination of the activities of ministries and departments, enterprises and organizations in the field of environmental protection monitoring; organization of monitoring of sources of anthropogenic impact on the environment and zones of their direct impact; organization of monitoring of flora and fauna, monitoring of terrestrial fauna and flora (except for forests); ensuring the creation and functioning of environmental information systems; maintenance with interested ministries and departments of data banks on the natural environment, natural resources and their use. Roshydromet: organization of monitoring of the state of the atmosphere, surface waters of land, the marine environment, soils, near-Earth space, including integrated background and space monitoring of the state of the environment; coordination of development and functioning of departmental background monitoring subsystems
environmental pollution; maintenance of the state fund of data on environmental pollution.

Roskomzem: land monitoring.
Ministry of Natural Resources: subsoil monitoring, including monitoring of groundwater and hazardous geological processes; monitoring of the aquatic environment of water management systems and structures in places of catchment and wastewater discharge. Roskomrybolovstvo: monitoring of fish, other animals and plants.

Rosleskhoz: forest monitoring.
Roskartografiya: implementation of topographic, geodetic and cartographic support of the USSEM, including the creation of digital, electronic maps and geographic information systems. Gosgortekhnadzor of Russia: coordination of the development and operation of subsystems for monitoring the geological environment related to the use of subsoil resources at enterprises in the extractive industries; monitoring of industrial safety (with the exception of objects of the Ministry of Defense of Russia and the Ministry of Atomic Energy of Russia). Goskomepidnadzor of Russia: monitoring the impact of environmental factors on the health of the population. Ministry of Defense of Russia; monitoring of OPS and sources of influence on it at military facilities; providing UGSEM with means and systems of dual-use military equipment. Goskomsever of Russia: participation in the development and operation of the USSEM in the regions of the Arctic and the Far North. The technology of unified environmental monitoring (SEM) covers the development and use of means, systems and methods of observation, evaluation and development of recommendations and control actions in the natural and technogenic sphere, forecasts of its evolution, energy, environmental and technological characteristics of the production sector, biomedical and sanitary hygienic conditions of human and biota existence. The complexity of environmental problems, their multidimensionality, the closest connection with key sectors of the economy, defense, and ensuring the protection of the health and well-being of the population require a unified systematic approach to solving the problem. Monitoring as a whole is created to prevent various environmental problems, as well as the destruction of ecosystems.

Extermination of species and destruction of ecosystems

Human impact on the biosphere has led to the fact that many species of animals and plants have either disappeared completely or become rare. For mammals and birds, which are easier to count than invertebrates, completely accurate data can be given. For the period from 1600 to the present, 162 species and subspecies of birds have been exterminated by man, and 381 species are threatened with the same fate; among mammals, at least a hundred species have disappeared and 255 are on the way to extinction. The chronology of these sad events is not difficult to trace. In 1627, the last tour, the ancestor of our cattle, died in Poland. In the Middle Ages, this animal could still be found in France. In 1671, the dodo disappeared from the island of Mauritius. In 1870-1880. Boers destroyed two species of South African zebras - Burchell's zebra and quagga. In 1914, the last representative of the passenger pigeon died in the Cincinnati Zoo (USA). A long list of endangered animals could be given. The American bison and the European bison miraculously survived; the Asiatic lion has survived only in one of the forests of India, where only 150 individuals remain; in France every day there are fewer bears and birds of prey.
Extinction of species today
Extinction is a natural process. However, since the advent of agriculture about 10,000 years ago, the rate of species extinction has increased dramatically as humans spread across the globe. According to rough estimates, between 8000 BC. the average rate of extinction of mammals and birds has increased 1,000 times. If we include here the rate of extinction of plant and insect species, then the rate of extinction in 1975 was several hundred species per year. If we take a lower limit of 500,000 extinct species, then by 2010, as a result of anthropogenic activities, on average, 20,000 species per year will disappear, i.e. a total of 1 species every 30 minutes - a 200-fold increase in the extinction rate in just 25 years. Even if the average extinction rate at the end of the 20th century is assumed to be 1,000 per year, the total loss will not be comparable to the great mass extinctions of the past. The most publicized is the disappearance of animals. But the extinction of plants from an ecological point of view is more important, since most animal species directly or indirectly depend on plant food. More than 10% of the world's plant species are estimated to be endangered today. By 2010, 16 to 25% of all plant species will disappear.

Principles of a comprehensive characterization of the state of pollution of the natural environment
A comprehensive characterization of the state of pollution comes from the concept of a comprehensive analysis of the environment. The main and obligatory condition of this concept is the consideration of all the main aspects of interactions and relationships in the natural environment and taking into account all aspects of the pollution of natural objects, as well as the behavior of pollutants (pollutants) and the manifestation of their impact.
The program of complex research of pollution of terrestrial ecosystems
Under the conditions of the increasing load of industrial civilization, environmental pollution is turning into a global factor that determines the development of the natural environment and human health. The prospects for such a development of society are disastrous for the existence of a developed civilization. The proposed program makes it possible to realistically assess the complex of problems associated with the organization of environmental monitoring and plan work to study the pollution of a particular area. The program also set the task of showing that environmental pollution is a real and ubiquitous environmental factor.
Pollution of the environment is an objective reality and one cannot be afraid of it. (An example is radiophobia, i.e. a mental illness associated with a constant fear of radioactive contamination). We must learn to live in the changed environment in a way that reduces the impact of pollution on our health and the health of our neighbors. The formation of an environmental outlook is the main way to fight for the preservation and improvement of the quality of the environment. Usually, in school, extracurricular and university programs of applied ecology, the problems of pollution of water bodies and the oceans are widely discussed. Particular attention is paid to the assessment of the state of reservoirs and local watercourses in terms of environmental and hydrochemical indicators. Numerous programs exist and operate to assess the ecological state of water bodies. This question is well worked out in methodological and scientific terms.

Terrestrial ecosystems, of which man is also an integral component, are less studied and less often used as model objects in training courses. This is due to the much more complex organization of terrestrial biota. When we consider terrestrial ecosystems, natural or heavily modified by humans, the number of internal and external relationships increases dramatically, the source of pollution or other impact becomes more diffuse, and its impact is more difficult to identify, compared to aquatic ecosystems. The boundaries of ecosystems and territories subject to anthropogenic impact are also blurred. However, it is the state of terrestrial ecosystems, i.e. land area, most noticeably and significantly affects the quality of our lives. The purity of the air we breathe, the food and drinking water we consume, is ultimately linked to the state of pollution of terrestrial ecosystems. Since the mid-1950s, environmental pollution has taken on a global scale - anywhere on the planet you can now find toxic products of our civilization: heavy metals, pesticides and other toxic organic and inorganic compounds. It took 20 years for scientists and governments around the world to realize the need to create a service to control global environmental pollution.

Under the auspices of the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP), a decision was made to create a Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) with a coordination center in Nairobi (Kenya). At the first intergovernmental meeting, held in 1974 in Nairobi, the main approaches to the creation of integrated background monitoring were adopted. Russia is one of the first countries in the world, on the territory of which, by the mid-80s, a national system of integrated background monitoring of the State Committee for Hydrometeorology was created. The system includes a network of integrated background monitoring stations (ICFM) located in biosphere reserves, on the territory of which systematic monitoring of environmental pollution and the state of flora and fauna is carried out. Now in Russia there are 7 background monitoring stations of the Federal Service of Russia "for hydrometeorology and environmental monitoring, located in biosphere reserves: Prioksko-Terrasny, Central Forest, Voronezh, Astrakhan, Kavkazsky, Barguzinsky and Sikhote-Alinsky.

The SCFM conducts observations of air pollution, precipitation, surface water, soil, vegetation and animals. These observations make it possible to estimate the change in the background pollution of the environment, i.e. pollution caused not by any one or a group of sources, but by the general pollution of a vast territory, caused by the total impact of close (local) and remote sources of pollutants, as well as the general pollution of the planet. On the basis of these data, it is possible to compile a comprehensive characterization of the pollution of the territory.
There is no need for long-term monitoring in order to make a preliminary comprehensive characterization of the pollution of the territory. It is important that when conducting a study, the basic requirements and principles on which the concept of research complexity is built are taken into account.

Principles of complex characteristics of the state of pollution of the natural environment. A comprehensive characterization of the state of pollution comes from the concept of a comprehensive analysis of the environment. The main and obligatory condition of this concept is consideration of all
the main aspects of interactions and relationships in the natural environment and taking into account all aspects of pollution of natural objects, as well as the behavior of pollutants (pollutants) and the manifestation of their impact. With a comprehensive characterization of pollution, pollutants are monitored in all
environments, while great importance is attached to the study of the accumulation (accumulation) of one or another pollutant in natural objects or certain landscapes, its transition (translocation) from one natural environment to another and the changes (effects) caused by it. The ongoing comprehensive studies of pollution are designed to determine the source of pollution, assess its power and impact time, and find ways to improve the environment. An approach that takes into account the listed requirements is considered to be complex.

In this regard, there are 4 main principles of complexity:
1. Integrity (observations of total indicators).
2. Multi-environment (observations in the main natural environments).
3. Consistency (recreation of biochemical cycles of pollutants).
4. Multicomponent nature (analysis of various types of pollutants).

When organizing long-term monitoring, special attention is paid to the fifth principle - the unification of analysis methods and the control and assurance of data quality. In the following, we describe each of these principles in detail.
It should be noted that when conducting a comprehensive study, not only purely ecological knowledge and methods are used, but also knowledge and methods of geography, geophysics, analytical chemistry, programming, etc.
Integrity
A feature of the integral approach is the use of signs of reactions of various natural objects and bioindicators to determine the presence of pollution.

Getting into an unfamiliar area, an observant person, and especially a naturalist, can determine the state of pollution in a given area by indirect features. An unnatural smell, a smoky horizon, gray February snow, an iridescent film on the surface of a reservoir, and many other features will prompt the observer to increased industrial pollution of the area. In the above example, indicators of the state of pollution of the area are non-living (abiotic) objects - surface air, the surface of the snow cover and the reservoir. The most widely used as an abiotic indicator of industrial pollution of the territory is the snow cover and the method of its study - snow survey (one of the methodological manuals of this series will be devoted to this method).
When using an integral approach, special attention is paid to the state of living organisms.

So, it is known that pine is the most vulnerable to air pollution in our zone. With a high level of air pollution with sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides and other toxic compounds, a general lightening of the color of the needles, dry tops, and yellowing of the edges of the needles are observed. Juniper dries up in the undergrowth. A few hours after acid rain, the edges of the birch leaves turn yellow, the leaves are covered with a gray-yellow coating or specks. With an abundance of nitrogen oxides in the air, algae rapidly develop on tree trunks, while epiphytic fruticose lichens disappear, etc. The presence of broad-toed crayfish in the reservoir indicates the high purity of the water.
The method of using living organisms as indicators signaling the state of the natural environment is called bioindication, and the living organism itself, the state of which is monitored, is called a bioindicator. In the above examples, living objects served as bioindicators - birch, pine, juniper, epiphytic lichens, broad-toed crayfish.
The use of bioindicators is based on the reaction of any biological organism to a negative impact. At the same time, the set of reactions to the multiple, integral, negative impact of the environment, as a rule, is very limited. The organism either dies, or leaves (if it can) the given area, or ekes out a miserable existence, which can be determined visually or using various tests and a series of special observations (several manuals of this series are devoted to bioindication methods).

The selection and use of bioindicators is entirely in line with environmental science, and bioindication is an intensively developing method for studying the results of impacts. For example, various plants are widely used in air quality observations. In the forest, in each tier, certain types of plants can be distinguished, reacting in their own way to the state of environmental pollution.
Thus, the integral approach is to use natural objects as indicators of environmental pollution.
At the same time, it is often completely unclear what specific substance was the cause of a particular effect, and it is impossible to draw conclusions about a direct relationship between the indicator species and the pollutant. The peculiarity of the integral approach lies precisely in the fact that this or that indicator object only signals to us that something is wrong in a given area. The use of bioindicators to characterize the state of pollution makes it possible to effectively (i.e., quickly and cheaply) determine the presence of a general, integral impact of pollution on the environment and make only preliminary ideas about the chemical nature of pollution. Unfortunately, it is impossible to accurately determine the chemical composition of pollutants using bioindication methods. In order to specifically determine which substance or group of substances has the most detrimental effect, it is necessary to use other research methods. Precise determination of the type of pollutant, its source, and the extent of pollution and spread is impossible without analytical long-term studies in all natural environments.

Multimedia
When conducting monitoring studies, it is important to cover all the main natural environments: the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere (mainly the soil cover - pedosphere), as well as biota. To analyze the migrations of pollutants, determine the places of their localization and accumulation, and determine the limiting environment, it is necessary to carry out measurements in objects of the main natural environments.
It is especially important to determine the limiting environment, that is, the environment, the pollution of which determines the pollution of all other environments and natural objects. It is also very important to determine the ways of migration of pollutants and the possibilities and coefficients of transition (translocation) of pollutants from one environment (or object) to another. This is the science of geophysics.

The main media (objects) that should be covered when conducting a comprehensive study: air, soil (as part of the lithosphere), surface water and biota. The contamination of each of these media is characterized by the results of analyzes of pollutants in various objects within these media, the choice of which is important for the results and conclusions obtained. To obtain information about the contamination of a particular object, it is required to take a sample for analysis. The main principles to be followed in site selection and sampling are outlined below.

Atmosphere.
The main object by which atmospheric pollution is characterized is the surface layer of air. Air samples for analysis are taken at a level of 1.5 - 2 m from the ground. Air sampling usually consists of pumping it through filters, a sorbent (binder) or measuring device. Special requirements apply to the selection site. Firstly, the site must be open and more than 100 m away from the forest. Measurements under the forest canopy give, as a rule, an underestimated result and characterize the density of crowns more than the level of air pollution. Indirectly, air quality can be judged by the pollution of atmospheric precipitation (mainly snow and rain). Precipitation is taken using large funnels, special sediment collectors or simply basins, only at the moment of precipitation and at the point of air sampling. Sometimes dry deposition samples are used to characterize air pollution, i.e. solid dust particles constantly deposited on the underlying surface. Methodically, this is a rather complicated task, which, however, is quite simply solved by the method of snow survey.

surface waters.
The main objects of study are small (local) rivers and lakes.
When sampling, special attention should be paid to the fact that water sampling should be carried out 15 - 30 cm below the water table. This is due to the fact that the surface film is a boundary medium between air and water, and the concentrations of most pollutants in it are 10–100 or more times higher than in the water column itself. The pollution of stagnant water bodies can be judged by bottom sediments. When sampling, it is important to consider the season in which the sampling takes place. There are 4 main seasonal periods: winter and summer low water (minimum level) and spring and autumn floods (maximum level). In low water, water levels in reservoirs are minimal, because. there is no water inflow with precipitation, or the amount of precipitation is less than evaporation. During these periods, the role of groundwater and groundwater in nutrition is the greatest. During periods of floods, the water level in reservoirs and streams rises, especially in spring, during the flood period. During these periods, rain food and food due to snowmelt make up the maximum share. In this case, the surface washout of soil particles and pollutants with them into rivers and lakes occurs. For small rivers and streams, rain floods are also distinguished, characterized by an increase in the water level for several hours or days after the rain, which plays a significant role in the washout of pollutants from the surrounding areas. The state of the water level in reservoirs is important to take into account due to the fact that by the period in which the concentration of pollutants in the water is higher, one can judge its source. If the concentration in the low water is higher than in the flood or practically does not change, then pollutants enter the watercourse with ground and groundwater, if vice versa - with fallout from the atmosphere and washout from the underlying surface.

Lithosphere (pedosphere).
The main object characterizing the contamination of the underlying surface is the soil, especially its upper 5 centimeters. In this regard, in most studies, only this upper layer is selected to characterize soil pollution.
When taking soil samples, it is important to identify autochthonous, that is, indigenous, ecosystems formed on elevated areas of the indigenous coast (plakor). Soil contamination in these areas is indicative of a typical state of contamination. As a rule, these are watershed primary forests and raised bogs. It is also necessary to carry out studies of soils in accumulative landscapes located in depressions and absorbing pollution from vast areas.

Biota.
The concept of biota includes objects of flora and fauna living in the study area.
On the example of these objects, the content of pollutants that tend to accumulate in plants and animals, that is, substances whose content in biological objects is higher than in abiotic media, is controlled. This phenomenon is called bioaccumulation.
The root cause of bioaccumulation is that the entry of a pollutant into a living object is much easier than its removal or decomposition. For example, the radioactive metal strontium (Sr 90) accumulates in the bone tissue of animals, since its properties are very close to calcium, which is the basis of the mineral component of bones. The body confuses these compounds and includes strontium in the bones. Another example is organochlorine pesticides such as DDT. These substances are highly soluble in fats and poorly soluble in water (this property is called lipophilicity in chemistry). As a result, substances from the intestine do not enter the blood, but into the lymph. With the blood, toxic substances would be delivered to the liver and kidneys - the organs responsible for the decomposition and elimination of toxic substances from the body. Once in the lymph, these substances are distributed throughout the body and dissolved in fats. Thus, a store of toxic substances in fats is created. Animals and plants also accumulate heavy metals, radionuclides, toxic organic compounds (pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls). These compounds are present in animals and plants in ultra-low concentrations (less than 10 mg/kg), which require the use of sophisticated analytical equipment.

Consistency
In part, we have already talked about the need to take into account the relationship between media and objects when sampling.
An ideal research system should be able to trace the path of the pollutant from the source to the sink, and from the exit point to the target (object of influence). The monitoring system should work in such a way that, by studying the interactions between environments, it can describe the paths of the biochemical circulation of substances. For this, a systematic approach is used, which allows creating transfer models.
On land, the atmosphere is the main pathway for the propagation and transport of pollutants. The intake of substances is associated with their concentration in the air and precipitation from the atmosphere with precipitation and dry fallout. The removal occurs by rivers, streams and surface washout during the period of snowmelt and rain. There may not be any removal outside the territory, and substances accumulate in the so-called accumulative landscapes - lowland swamps, depressions, ravines and lakes. To link all the examined components into a single system, it is necessary to collect the parameters of the main abiotic and biotic indicators of objects and ecosystems as a whole.

The main abiotic indicators are:

Climatic:
1) Air temperature and pressure - to bring the volume of pumped air during sampling to normal conditions, as well as to simulate the process of pollutant transfer.
2) Wind speed and direction - ways of pollutant transfer from the source, identification of the source, modeling of the transfer process, monitoring of the release from the enterprise (source).
3) Amount of precipitation - calculation of precipitation of pollutants from the atmosphere. Hydrological: water level, flow rate and runoff volume -
necessary to determine the time of sampling and calculate the volume of pollutant removal and determine the source (path of entry).

Soil: soil volumetric weight, type and genetic horizons, mechanical composition. All this must be investigated to determine the density of pollution and the biological capacity of soils. It is also important to take into account the aeration, drainage and watering of the soil. These indicators characterize the intensity of decontamination of pollutants. For example, under anaerobic conditions (reducing reactions predominate in the soil without access to oxygen) and under conditions of increased moisture (signified by traces of gleying on the soil profile), most pesticides and other complex hydrocarbons (for example, polychlorinated biphenyls) are rather quickly decomposed or consumed by anaerobic microorganisms. Biotic parameters: key ecosystem parameters are collected to detect the effect of pollution and to calculate biogeochemical cycles and translocations of pollutants in ecosystems. The main parameters are: productivity, litter, total biomass and phytomass. An important characteristic that is used in organizing long-term monitoring of the state of natural ecosystems is the rate of litter decomposition. Special tests have been developed to control the rate of decomposition. With a high level of pollution, the rate of decomposition of the litter decreases.

Multicomponent
Modern industry and agriculture use a huge amount of toxic compounds and elements and, accordingly, are powerful sources of environmental pollution. Many of them are xenobiotics, i.e. synthetic substances that are not characteristic of living nature. The reason for the deterioration of the ecological situation and the oppression of biota can be any of the substances. Until recently, control over the entire spectrum of pollutants was practically impossible. Trends in the development of analytical methods and instruments have led to the fact that now it is quite possible to obtain information about ultra-low concentrations of almost all substances. However, these devices are too expensive for widespread implementation in practice, and there is no need for this. It is enough to single out the most dangerous or most informative substances, and carry out thorough control over them. In this case, of course, one has to put up with the instrumental methods of analysis available.

The GEMS program identifies the main, most dangerous (priority) pollutants and the most important media for their control (Table 1). The higher the priority class, the higher their danger to the biosphere and the more thorough the control.
Data on the main priority pollutants are necessary and sufficient for a comprehensive characterization of the pollution of the territory. Many of them are indicative of a whole class of pollutants. Conventionally, pollutants can be divided into 3 types according to their behavior in the natural environment:

1. Substances that are not prone to accumulation in natural environments and to the transition from one environment to another (translocation). As a rule, these are gaseous compounds.
The priority medium for observations is air.
2. Substances partially prone to accumulation, mainly in abiotic environments, as well as migrating in various environments. These substances include nitrates and other fertilizers, some pesticides, petroleum products, etc.
The priority environment is natural waters, soil.
3. Substances that accumulate in animate and inanimate nature and are included in the biogeochemical cycles of ecosystems. This group includes the most dangerous substances for the organism of animals and humans - pesticides, dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), heavy metals.

The priority environment is soils and biota.
The type (or level) of the surveillance program indicates the extent of the pollutant's spread.
The impact (local) level indicates that the pollutant is dangerous only close to the source (large city, factory, etc.). At a considerable distance, pollution levels are not dangerous.
The regional level means that dangerous levels of pollution can be created in certain regions over a sufficiently large area.
At the baseline or global level, pollution has assumed planetary proportions.
Table 1. Classification of priority pollutants

Note: I - impact, R - regional, B - basic (global).

Where to start with a comprehensive characterization of pollution?

Starting to create a system of local monitoring of environmental pollution, one should:
1) Clearly define the study area.
2) After that, it is necessary to determine the near and remote sources of pollution. This work is called - inventory of sources of pollution. To carry it out, it is necessary to determine the existing and other possible sources of pollution and substances that can be emitted by these sources on the territory of your residence and (or) research, as well as to estimate the amount of emissions of emitted pollutants (power of sources). Sources, at the same time, are divided into point and area sources. Point, or organized, sources are localized on the ground, i.e. have a defined ejection point, for example, in the form of a pipe. These can be industrial enterprises, houses with stove heating, boiler rooms, landfills.

Areal, or unorganized, sources do not have a specific pipe - pollutants are emitted over a specific area. These are highways and railways, agricultural land where fertilizers and pesticides are used, forest land that can be treated with insecticides and defoliants.
There are local sources, i.e. located in the study area or within 10-20 km from it and regional, located 50-200 km away. At the same time, you should try to evaluate the sources and identify the most powerful ones that determine the level of pollution in your area.

For example, the zone of influence of a point regional source, the Monchegorsk Severonikel mining plant, extends over a territory of more than 100 km. In the zone up to 20 km from the plant, all vegetation was burned by acid precipitation, with the exception of the most resistant mosses, and the contamination of soils and, accordingly, mushrooms and berries with heavy metals spreads within a radius of 50 km from the plant.
In such cases, smaller sources of heavy metals and sulfur compounds have little or no effect on the overall pollution pattern, since completely suppressed by a more powerful source. The measurement results will thus be determined by the meteorological factors of pollutant transfer and the intensity of the plant's emissions.

It is also important to pay attention to the ways in which pollutants spread. Substances from a source to the environment may be emitted to the atmosphere or discharged to a watercourse or sewer. Source inventory is a painstaking and difficult job. However, a successful inventory of sources promises half the success of your undertaking. You can get the necessary information about the sources and power of emissions from local environmental committees. Each industrial facility that emits products of its activities into the environment has an environmental passport and is obliged to conduct an inventory of pollution sources on its territory. 3) At the third stage, using the knowledge and techniques of bioindication, one should try to detect effects. 4) The fourth stage includes a comprehensive survey of all environments based on your existing measuring instruments. Here, at first, simple tablet studies, such as snow measurements and analysis of snow samples for the content and composition of particulate matter and the concentration of hydrogen ions (pH), will be of great benefit. After the examination, you can already judge the degree of industrial and agricultural pollution in your area and determine the most significant sources of pollution.

5) After that, you can start under-flare observations and organize monitoring of the activities of a particular enterprise that makes the maximum contribution to the pollution of your area. The essence of under-flare observations is that in the direction of the prevailing winds at an equal distance from the source, information collection points (points) are laid. At the same time, it is good to combine various research methods - chemical, biological (for example, bioindication), geographical, etc. On the windward side, at some distance from the source, it is also necessary to lay an observation point that will play the role of a control point, but only if it is not located on the windward side of another equally powerful source. Comparing the results obtained for lee points located at different distances from the source between themselves and with the control point, one can clearly show the impact of a given enterprise on the state of the environment and determine the zone of its impact.

Of course, with a limited number of observations, you will not be able to recreate biogeochemical cycles. This task is only possible for large scientific teams, but you will already be able to judge the level of pollution and the sources that make the maximum contribution to the pollution of the natural environment in your area. The ultimate goal of conducting a comprehensive survey of the territory is to assess the state of pollution in your area. The assessment includes a comparison of pollution levels in your area with other areas, the usual, background levels of pollution for selected pollutants, and determining the strength of the impact and the compliance of the quality of the environment with accepted maximum allowable standards. Unfortunately, environmental standards have not been fully developed and it is often necessary to use only the sanitary and hygienic standards listed in the list of additional literature. You can get acquainted with the background levels in local SES, environmental committees and in the yearbooks of Roshydromet.

References:
"Program of Comprehensive Study of Pollution of Terrestrial Ecosystems (Introduction to the Problem of Environmental Monitoring)" Yu.A. Buivolov, A.S. Bogolyubov, M.: Ecosystem, 1997.