Periods of human development and life. Age periodization of human development. The cycle of adulthood has four stages

Age periods - these are certain periods, time intervals that are necessary to complete a certain stage of the morphological and functional development of individual tissues, organs, systems of the body and the whole organism as a whole.

The allocation of age periods is rather arbitrary, and the idea of ​​age periods is relative. But for practical purposes, such a division is necessary. The criteria by which certain stages of life, certain age periods of a person, their duration are determined depend on a number of factors. These are, first of all, the biological characteristics of the organism, secondly, social factors (environmental conditions, standard of living), and thirdly, the level of scientific knowledge and the state of healthcare. Other factors that affect both the state of a person's health and his worldview are also important.

Throughout the life cycle of a person - from conception to death - there are three main periods:

The period of growth and development, the formation of functional systems, lasting until the age of morphological, sexual, psychological maturity;

The period of relative stability, maturity of the functional systems of the body;

The period of extinction, weakening and destruction of functional systems during the aging of the body, which occurs after the cessation of reproductive function.

The boundaries between certain age periods can not always be clearly established, especially in an adult. The division into age periods is most detailed for childhood, and it reflects, first of all, the stages of maturation of the nervous system, internal organs, masticatory apparatus, the formation of higher nervous activity. This is explained by the fact that it is in childhood that qualitatively new changes occur more dynamically and faster. The period of childhood is characterized by a continuous process of growth and development, when the organs and functional systems of the child change in accordance with known age limits.

The period of childhood is preceded by the period of intrauterine development, in which it is possible to distinguish stages(or periods) of embryonic (the first 2 lunar months) and placental (from the 3rd to the 10th lunar month) development.

Thus, in childhood, there are:

A. Intrauterine stage:

1) the stage of embryonic development (the first 2 lunar months);

2) the stage of placental development (from the 3rd to the 10th lunar month).

B. Extrauterine stage:

1) neonatal period (up to 4 weeks);

2) the period of infancy (from 4 weeks to 12 months);

3) pre-preschool, or senior nursery, period (from 1 year to 3 years);

4) preschool period (from 3 to 6-7 years old);

5) junior school period (from 6-7 to 11-12 years old);

6) senior school, or teenage period (from 12 to 16-18 years). Such a detailed and precise distinction cannot be made

in what other age period.

However, in the life of an adult, certain stages, or age periods, can also be distinguished.

Currently, the following periods in the life of an adult are distinguished:

1) adolescence (from 16 to 20 years for women, from 17 to 21 years for men);

2) mature age (from 20 to 55 years for women, from 21 to 60 years for men). It, in turn, is divided into two sub-periods:

a) from 20 to 35 years for women, from 21 to 35 years for men;

b) from 35 to 55 years for women, from 35 to 60 years for men.

Some researchers distinguish the following groups in adulthood:

a) young age - up to 45 years;

b) average age - 45-60 years.

On the border of mature and old age, due to the importance of the processes occurring in the body, a special age interval is distinguished - the menopause (from 45 to 60 years for women, from 50 to 60 years for men);

3) old age (from 55 to 75 years for women, from 60 to 75 years for men);

4) senile age (from 75 to 90 years);

5) late senile, or macrobiotic (after 90 years; such people are called centenarians).

In the stages of a person's life, several of the most important, critical periods, the so-called "hot spots" of age biography, can be distinguished, which are characterized by more significant physiological, psychological and morphological changes that require increased attention from both medical personnel and the person himself and his immediate environment. . These periods are primarily newborns, period puberty (puberty), menopause and the period of advanced and senile age.

There are such critical periods in adulthood, and they are associated both with the physiological and, to a greater extent, with the psychological and social characteristics of a particular period of life. This is the third “hot spot” of a person’s age biography (the first is the neonatal period, the second is puberty), falling on the period from 20 to 25 years (with possible fluctuations depending on the ethnic and cultural characteristics of certain groups within four years). This period generally coincides for both men and women. The following "hot spots" in the life stages of men and women do not coincide in age. For women, this is about 30 years old, for men - about 40.

Each age period has its own characteristic features relating to both all organs and systems (Table 1.3), and the mental and intellectual spheres.

Table 1.3 Age characteristics of a healthy person

Chapter 15

§ 15.1. PERIODIZATION OF AGE DEVELOPMENT

Mental development is a process that unfolds over time and is characterized by both quantitative and qualitative changes. According to the definition of B. G. Ananiev, age development has two properties - metric and topological. The metric property means the duration of the course of certain mental processes and states, as well as the temporal characteristic of changes in the psyche that occur throughout a person's life. The metric property is measured by time intervals (days, months, years, etc.) or indicators of the dynamics of changes in a particular mental phenomenon (tempo, speed, acceleration). In the process of studying the temporal aspect of age development, temporal patterns were identified, such as unevenness and heterochrony. The unevenness of age development is expressed in the fact that individual mental functions and personal qualities of a person have a certain trajectory of changes over time, which can be both simple and complex, curvilinear in nature. In other words, the growth and aging of mental functions occurs unevenly, at different rates, which complicates the definition of different periods of a person's age development. The unevenness of mental development is influenced by historical time. The same properties function at different rates depending on the generation to which the individual belongs. Thus, the same periods of time, the volume of knowledge and the system of intellectual operations change significantly with the general progress of education and culture. in the 20th century compared to the 19th century. the pace and timing of the completion of maturation change, phenomena of acceleration, or acceleration, of general somatic and neuropsychic development are observed, and at the same time, slowing down the aging process.

Another temporal pattern is expressed in the heterochrony of age development. When comparing the rates of variability of mental functions and properties with each other, a difference in timing is revealed in their passage through the phases of age development, growth, reaching maturity and evolution, which indicates the complexity and inconsistency of age-related development. Heterochrony can be intrafunctional, when certain aspects of mental function develop at different times, and interfunctional, in which various functions go through phases of their development at different times. Intrafunctional heterochrony refers to the difference in timing of aging of various types of color sensitivity. With age, sensitivity to blue and red colors ages most quickly, and sensitivity to yellow and green colors (according to Smith) turns out to be more stable with age. Interfunctional heterochrony refers to the discrepancy in time between the achievements of the optimum of sensory and intellectual, creative abilities and social development. Sensory development reaches a maturity phase at 18–25 years (according to Lazarev), intellectual, creative abilities can reach their optimum on average much later - at 35 years (according to Leman), and personal maturity - at 50–60 years. All this creates favorable opportunities for the age individual development person throughout his life. During the period of growth, those functions that are of paramount importance for the formation of other forms of the psyche develop most rapidly. So, in early preschool childhood, orientation in space is formed, and then later the child learns the concepts of time. During the period of aging, heterochrony ensures the preservation and further development of some functions at the expense of others, which at this time weaken and involute. Awareness, vocabulary of an elderly person can increase, while psychomotor and sensory-perceptual functions deteriorate if there is no systematic training for them and they are not included in professional activities.

No less important than the metric property is the topological property of age development. It means the certainty of a particular state, phase or period of the formation of an individual. Since age-related development as a holistic formation is a complex dynamic system, its qualitative topological features can be determined by studying the structural features of the interconnections of its various aspects, highlighting the leading, backbone factors that are associated with the specifics of a given period of life.

In modern periodizations of age development, metric and topological characteristics are used in a single classification scheme. The discrepancies of various periodizations, mismatches of boundaries for different periods are mainly associated with the inconsistency of mental development, due to the action of temporal patterns, unevenness and heterochrony, and with the topological complexity of various phases, the dynamics of the relationship between biological and social throughout the entire life cycle of a person. The structure of the life path and its main points (start, optima, finish) change in the course of historical development, from generation to generation, which also affects the periodization of age development.

The various age classifications can be divided into two groups. Private classifications are devoted to individual segments of life, more often children's and school years. General classifications cover the entire life path of a person. Particular is the classification of the development of intelligence by J. Piaget, who distinguishes three main periods of its formation from the moment of birth to 15 years:

period of sensorimotor intelligence (0–2 years). There are six main stages in this period;

the period of preparation and organization of specific operations (3 years - 11 years). Two sub-periods are distinguished here - the sub-period of pre-operational representations (3 years - 7 years), in which Piaget distinguishes three stages, and the sub-period of specific operations (8-11 years);

and, finally, the period of formal operations (12-15 years old), when a teenager can successfully act in relation not only to the reality around him, but also to the world of abstract, verbal assumptions.

In the classification of D. B. Elkonin, also belonging to the first group, three epochs of life are considered - early childhood, childhood and adolescence. In each era, there is a change in the leading types of activity that cause changes in the development of the child and his transition to a new era. Following the periods in which the predominant development of the motivational sphere takes place, periods naturally follow in which there is a predominant development of socially developed methods of acting with objects, the formation of the operational and technical capabilities of children. Elkonin arranged the selected types of activity in the system "child - social adult" and in the system "child - social object" in the sequence in which they become leading. As a result, he received the following series, where the frequency of the change of the leading types of activity is observed:

direct-emotional communication (infancy);

object-manipulative activity (early childhood);

role-playing game (preschooler);

educational activity (junior school student);

intimate-personal communication (younger teenager);

educational and professional activities (senior teenager).

Thus, in this age periodization, two indicators act as the main development criteria - the motivational-required sphere and the operational and technical capabilities of the child. The absence of definite temporal boundaries in this classification suggests that the author focused not on the metric, but on the topological characteristics of age development.

Periodizations covering the entire life cycle of a person include the classification of age periods adopted at one of the symposiums of the USSR Academy of Sciences in 1965 (Table 6).

Table 6

The periodization proposed by Birren includes the phases of life from infancy to old age. According to B. G. Ananiev, it is interesting because it takes into account modern historical trends in accelerating maturation during the period of growth and slowing down the aging process. According to this classification: youth - 12-17 years old, early maturity - 18-25 years old, maturity - 26-50 years old, late maturity - 51-75 years old, and old age - from 76 years old.

Eight stages of a person's life from birth to old age are described by E. Erickson, who drew attention to the development of the human "I" throughout life, to personality changes in relation to the social environment and to oneself, including both positive and negative aspects. The first stage (trust and distrust) is the first year of life. The second stage (independence and indecision) - 2-3 years. The third stage (enterprise and guilt) - 4-5 years. The fourth stage (skill and inferiority) - 6-11 years. Fifth stage (personal identification and confusion of roles) - 12-18 years. The sixth stage (intimacy and loneliness) is the beginning of maturity. The seventh stage (general humanity and self-absorption) is mature age and the eighth stage (wholeness and hopelessness) is old age. This classification uses metric and topological criteria. Moreover, with age, the importance of topological characteristics in assessing the psychological variability of a person increases. The classification of the German anthropologist G. Grimm is built purely qualitatively, without metric definitions of the duration of the phases of age development. In his opinion, numerical expressions for determining time limits are possible only for the first periods, meaning the increase in individual variability with age. This classification is of interest because it takes into account morphological and somatic changes, such an important indicator as a person's ability to work in different periods of his life. The most complete and detailed, covering the entire life cycle, is D. Bromley's age periodization. He considers human life as a set of five cycles: uterine, childhood, youth, adulthood and aging. Each of the cycles consists of a number of stages. The first cycle consists of 4 stages until birth. Since that time, development has been characterized by a change in the ways of orientation, behavior and communication in the external environment, the dynamics of the intellect, the emotional-volitional sphere, motivation, the social development of the personality and professional activity. The second cycle - childhood - consists of three stages: infancy, preschool childhood and early school childhood, and covers 11-13 years of life. The cycle of adolescence consists of two stages: the stage of puberty (11-13-15 years) and late adolescence (16-21). The cycle of adulthood consists of four stages:

1) early adulthood (21–25 years);

2) average adulthood (26–40 years old);

3) late adulthood (41–55 years);

4) pre-retirement age (56–65 years). The aging cycle consists of three stages:

1) removal from affairs (66–70 years);

2) old age (71 years or more);

3) the last stage - painful old age and decrepitude. Periodizations differ in how broadly and how detailed

they present age-related changes in various aspects of the psyche and to what extent the metric and topological properties of the age-related development of a person are expressed. According to B. G. Ananiev, the most difficult task is to determine the duration of development phases and critical points, its discrete moments, since one should take into account the heterochrony of functional and personality changes, as well as age and individual variability in changing historical conditions.

§ 15.2. EARLY CHILDHOOD

From the moment of birth, various mechanisms of mental activity begin to function in a child, which ensure his interaction with adults and with the environment and the satisfaction of his vital needs. A newborn is capable of perceiving effects on various sense organs in an elementary form. All analyzers from the first days of a child's life carry out an initial, elementary analysis of the effects of the environment. Newborns not only respond to a strong sound, but are able to distinguish sounds that differ by one octave. It was established in children the presence of color, as well as gustatory and olfactory sensitivity. There is information about the presence of other types of sensations. The most sensitive areas to touch are the lips, forehead and palms of the child. He may refuse milk, which is 1 ° C colder than usual. Children in the first 10 days of life prefer structural, complex, three-dimensional, moving objects. Small children can follow the object, localize it in space, compare objects with each other. Along with various forms of sensory activity, the newborn has a large set of postural and locomotor reflexes. All this contributes to the rapid adaptation of the child to new living conditions and the creation of prerequisites for his further development. The emergence of individual experience, the establishment of various relationships and connections with the social environment based on the mechanism of temporary connections means the transition from a newborn at the end of the first month of life to a new, infantile, period of development.

Infant age from 1 month to 1 year is characterized by a high intensity of the processes of development of sensory and motor functions, the creation of the prerequisites for speech and social development in conditions of direct interaction between the child and adults. At this time, the environment is extremely important, the participation of adults not only in the physical, but also in the mental development of the child (creation of an enriched physical and speech environment, emotional communication, assistance in the development of his various movements, the act of grasping and locomotion, the creation of problem situations, etc.). P.). Mental development in infancy is characterized by the most pronounced intensity, not only in terms of pace, but also in the sense of new formations. At present, the stages of development of all types of motor skills (eye movements, the act of grasping, locomotion), the initial forms of thinking, the prerequisites for speech, and perceptual function have been established. On this rich and multi-qualitative basis, after a year of life and throughout the entire life cycle of a person, the social development of the psyche is carried out.

The next - pre-preschool - period - from 1 year to 3 years of life. The importance of these two years of life is due to the fact that at this time the child masters speech and the prerequisites are created for the formation of the personality and the subject of activity. The rapid development of speech is due to the fact that almost simultaneously the child begins to learn the phonetic structure of the language (from 11 months) and its vocabulary (from 10–12 months). By the end of preschool age, he begins to link individual words into sentences (from 1 year 10 months), which means a transition to inflectional speech. The formation of connections between words and objects is directly dependent on the frequency, duration and nature of communication between adults and a child. On the basis of speech in the second year of life, he not only associates the word with a single object, but also begins to group objects according to the most striking external features, for example, by color. This means the appearance of the first stage in the development of the generalization function.

Preschool age is the initial stage in the formation of the regulatory function of speech. The inhibitory function of speech in its development lags behind its triggering function. A child under 3 years old cannot yet follow a complex instruction that requires a choice. He can only follow simple instructions from an adult. At this time, various basic forms of the psyche are actively developing: memory in the form of recognition, visual thinking, attention, perception, psychomotor. With age, the period between the perception of an object and its recognition lengthens. In the second year of life, the child recognizes close people and objects after a few weeks, in the third year - after a few months, and in the fourth - after a year after their perception.

Before preschool age various mental functions begin to take shape, such as the ability to generalize, transfer acquired experience to new conditions, the ability to establish connections and relationships and, in an elementary form, through active experimentation, solve specific problems using various objects as a means to achieve the goal. Speech and practical activity of the child play a significant role in the development of the thinking ability. The dominant function in the pre-school age is perception, which develops intensively during this period and at the same time it determines the specifics of other mental forms that function at the visual-sensory level (memory, thinking).

Starting from 1 year 6 months, children successfully cope with the choice of simple shapes according to the model, such as a square, a triangle, a trapezoid. At 3 years old, children could visually correlate the shape and shape of the holes and then act correctly, for example, insert a certain type of key into the corresponding hole.

How actively a preschooler will be included in sensory-perceptual activity depends not only on the formation of perception itself, but also on other forms of the child's psyche. And here comes to the fore the organization by adults of the process of contemplation and experimentation, a wide and varied practical acquaintance of children with objects of the world around them. To stimulate the cognitive and practical activity of the child, emotional contacts with the mother are important. At 6 months, children show the same results in mental development, regardless of living conditions and upbringing. At the age of one year, children separated from their parents begin to lag behind in their mental development. In 3 years, the influence of the socio-economic factor also affects. Children from cultural, wealthy families show superior development compared to children from working families. Studies of mental deprivation in childhood have shown that the long-term separation of a child from his mother or another person who takes her place in the first years of life, as a rule, leads to a violation of the mental health of the child, leaving consequences throughout his further development.

Direct contacts with the mother in early childhood provide a whole range of positive influences on the child. An adult not only emotionally stimulates cognitive and practical activity, but also carries out the optimal organization of the environment, enriching it with toys and various objects. It acts as a source of social and emotional reinforcement for the activities of a small child. At the same time, he uses the dominant role of perception in order to effectively influence children's behavior. In communication and cooperation with adults, the child's communicative activity begins to manifest itself, which, in turn, affects the development of his cognitive functions, not only speech, but also attention, memory, and especially their arbitrary forms.

The formation of the subject of practical activity originates in preschool age. At this time, the child learns to use various household and play items (typewriter, spoon, cup), can perform sequential actions according to elementary instructions. During this period of life, the direct cooperation of the child with adults is especially important, which contributes to the formation of his independence and initiative.

In early childhood, the prerequisites for personality development are also created. The child begins to separate himself from other objects, stand out from the people around him, which leads to the emergence of initial forms of self-consciousness. The first stage in the real formation of the personality as an independent subject, standing out from the surrounding world, is associated with the mastery of one's own body, with the emergence of voluntary movements. These latter are developed in the process of formation of the first objective actions. By the age of 3, the child develops an idea of ​​himself, which is expressed in the transition from calling himself by name to using the pronouns “my”, “I”, etc. Considering the genesis of self-consciousness, B. G. Ananiev believed that the formation of one’s own “I » there is a huge leap in development, as there is a transition to separating oneself as a permanent whole from the current stream of changing actions. The main factors in the genesis of the child's self-awareness, in his opinion, are communication with adults, mastery of speech and objective activity. It should also be noted that the pre-preschool age is characterized by rapid and at the same time uneven rates of development of various mental functions. The development of attention is of great importance. Children with an undeveloped reaction to novelty also demonstrate lower scores in memory, thinking and speech. During this period of life, an arbitrary form of attention appears, which is observed during visual search according to the verbal instructions of an adult. If at 12 months this form is still absent, then at 23 months it is already present in 90% of children. At this time, in terms of growth rates, the leading one is spatial visual memory, which is ahead of figurative and verbal memory in its development.

By the end of the second year of life, an arbitrary form of memorizing words appears. The ability to classify objects according to shape and color is manifested in most children in the second half of the second year of life. At preschool age, the speech function is intensively formed. In conditions of an impoverished social environment and insufficient communication between adults and children, precisely those functions that are basic for the social development of the psyche turn out to be underdeveloped. The study compared the mental functions of children aged 23–25 months raised in a family and in a children's home. The greatest differences were found in the development of speech, voluntary attention, classification by form and auditory memory, and the smallest differences were found in the development of involuntary forms of attention and classification by color.

Thus, by the age of 3, the necessary prerequisites are created for the transition to the next, preschool period. In early childhood, speech function, motor skills and objective actions are intensively formed. A variety of cognitive functions in their original forms (sensorics, perception, memory, thinking, attention) are also rapidly developing. At the same time, the child begins to develop communicative properties, interest in people, sociability, imitation, primary forms of self-consciousness are formed.

Mental development in early childhood and the variety of its forms and manifestations depend on how much the child is included in communication with adults and how actively he manifests himself in objective and cognitive activities.

§ 15.3. THE PERIOD OF PRESCHOOL CHILDHOOD

Preschool age is a period of further intensive formation of the psyche, the emergence of various qualitative formations both in the development of psychophysiological functions and in the personal sphere. New high-quality education occurs due to many factors: speech and communication with adults and peers, various forms of cognition and inclusion in various types of activities (playing, productive, household). All this contributes to a better adaptation of the child to social conditions and the requirements of life. At the same time, the elementary forms of the psyche, sensorics and perception continue to develop.

Two contradictory tendencies are observed in the development of the basic properties of perception. On the one hand, there is an increase in integrity, and on the other hand, the detailing and structure of the perceptual image is manifested. By the end of preschool age, the ability to isolate the shape of an object appears. By the age of 6, children begin to cope with the task of laying out the outline of a figure, such as a mushroom, at home without errors. For younger children, the solution to this problem is still practically inaccessible. By filming the movement of the child's eyes in the experiments of V.P. Zinchenko, it was found that children at the age of 3 cannot yet fix the contour of planar figures. The movements of their eyes are carried out “inside” the figures with a small number of fixations (1–2 movements per second). Only at the age of 6 does a thorough acquaintance with the figure take place and eye movements follow along its entire contour. However, already at the age of 3, children are able to follow the pointer along the contour, which indicates a high learning ability at this age. The ability of children to select objects along the contour means the formation of the integrity of perception. From the age of 5-6, there comes a turning point in the development of such a property of perception as structure. This is expressed in the fact that children are able to build a figure from its individual parts, to single out and correlate structural elements in complex objects. Children successfully solve problems by choosing not only simple, but also complex multi-component figures according to the model. At preschool age, social perceptual standards are also assimilated in the form of knowledge of geometric shapes, tempered musical structure.

The leading form of the psyche at this time is the representation, which is intensively developed in various types of playful and productive activities (drawing, modeling, design, role-playing, story games). Representations leave an imprint on the entire process of mental development. Various forms of the psyche are most successfully formed if they are associated with secondary images, that is, with representations. Therefore, such forms of the psyche as imagination, figurative memory and visual-figurative thinking are rapidly developing.

Children's cognition of various properties and connections of things occurs in the process of operating with the images of these things. Not only various mental functions, but also the child's speech, its development during this period are mainly associated with ideas. The understanding of speech by children largely depends on the content of those ideas that arise in them in the process of its perception. The development of mental functions in preschool age is complicated by the fact that in the process of communication, cognitive and practical activities, social forms of the psyche are actively formed, not only in the perceptual sphere, but also in the field of memory (verbal memory, arbitrary memorization of words and objects). By the end of preschool age, verbal-logical thinking appears. Preschool age is the initial stage in the formation of the subject of cognitive and practical activity.

This period of life is extremely important in terms of the genesis and formation of social forms of the psyche and moral behavior. The predominance of topics related to the image of a person in the work of a preschooler indicates his primary orientation towards the social environment. This creates a broad basis for the formation of primary forms of socially significant qualities. By the end of preschool age, there is a transition from an emotional direct relationship to the outside world to relationships that are built on the basis of the assimilation of moral assessments, rules and norms of behavior. The formation of moral concepts in preschool age occurs in various ways. When asked what kindness, courage, justice are, the children either used specific cases of behavior or gave the general meaning of the concept. Answers in the general form in children of 4 years old were 32%, and 7 years old - 54%. Thus, in communicating with adults, the child often learns moral concepts in a categorical form, gradually clarifying and filling them with specific content, which speeds up the process of their formation and at the same time creates the danger of their formal assimilation. Therefore, it is important that the child learns to apply them in life in relation to himself and others. This is essential, first of all, for the formation of his personal properties. At the same time, socially significant standards of behavior are important, which become literary heroes and people directly surrounding the child. Of particular importance as behavioral standards for a preschooler are the characters of fairy tales, where positive and negative character traits are accentuated in a concrete, figurative, accessible form, which facilitates the child's initial orientation in the complex structure of a person's personal properties. Personality develops in the process of real interaction of the child with the world, including the social environment, and through the assimilation by him of the moral criteria that regulate his behavior. This process is controlled by adults who contribute to the selection and training of socially significant properties. The independence of the child begins to manifest itself in the case when he applies moral assessments to himself and others and regulates his behavior on this basis. This means that at this age such a complex personality trait as self-awareness develops. B. G. Ananiev singled out the formation of self-esteem in the genesis of self-consciousness. The adequacy of the child's value judgments is determined by the constant evaluative activity of parents, as well as educators in connection with the implementation of the rules of behavior for children in a group in various activities (games, duty, classes). As early as 3–4 years old, there are children who are able to independently assess some of their capabilities and correctly predict the results of their actions based on their own experience (for example, the distance of the jump). It should be noted that the influence of parents' assessments on the preschooler's self-esteem depends on the child's understanding of the competence of the mother and father and the style of upbringing, on the nature of relationships in the family. Children accept and assimilate the assessments of the parent, who for them is a significant person and the bearer of standards of behavior.

By the age of 5, children have a certain position in the group, they are differentiated by sociometric status. At the same time, the preferences that the child has for his peers in play activities, in the classroom, when performing work assignments, are relatively stable. The selectivity of choice is associated with the formation of a motivational sphere and various personal properties at preschool age. The main motive that encourages children to unite is satisfaction with the process of playing communication. In second place is the orientation towards the positive qualities of the chosen one, which are manifested in communication (cheerful, kind, honest, etc.). Later, in children of 6–7 years old, their ability to perform any particular activity also acts as a motive for choosing a partner. Orientation to personal characteristics that are formed outside of direct play communication, in various activities, in communication with adults (hard work, obedience, ability to draw, sing), indicates different sources of formation of motives that determine relationships in children's groups.

Preschool age is the initial stage in the formation of the subject of activity. The transition to the preschool period is marked by the fact that the child is no longer satisfied with simple manipulative actions that he mastered in previous years. Goal-setting, the volitional component of the subject of activity is formed. Concentration and consistency in actions, self-assessment of one's actions and the result obtained are manifested. Under the influence of assessments and control of an adult, an older preschooler begins to notice mistakes in his own activities and in the work of others, and at the same time single out role models. At preschool age, both general, mental and special abilities for visual, musical, choreographic and other activities are formed. Their originality lies in the fact that they are based on the development of different forms of representations (visual, auditory, etc.).

The emerging qualitative formations of various kinds, such as personal properties, psychological structures of the subject of activity, communication and cognition, the intensive process of socialization of the natural forms of the psyche, its psychophysiological functions, create real prerequisites for the transition to the school period of life. Adults largely determine the originality and complexity of the mental development of a preschooler, forming his psychological readiness for schooling.

§ 15.4. SCHOOL AND YOUTH PERIODS

The main activity of school childhood is educational, during which the child not only masters the skills and methods of obtaining knowledge, but also enriches himself with new meanings, motives and needs, masters the skills of social relationships.

School ontogeny covers the following age periods: junior school age - 7-10 years; junior teenage - 11-13 years old; senior teenage - 14-15 years; adolescence - 16-18 years. Each of these periods of development is characterized by its own characteristics.

One of the most difficult periods of school ontogenesis is adolescence, which is otherwise called the transitional period, as it is characterized by the transition from childhood to adolescence, from immaturity to maturity.

Adolescence is a period of rapid and uneven growth and development of the body, when there is an intensive growth of the body, the muscular apparatus is being improved, and the process of ossification of the skeleton is underway. Mismatch, uneven development of the heart and blood vessels, as well as increased activity of the endocrine glands often lead to some temporary circulatory disorders, increased blood pressure, cardiac tension in adolescents, as well as an increase in their excitability, which can be expressed in irritability, fatigue, dizziness and heartbeat. The nervous system of an adolescent is not always able to withstand strong or long-acting stimuli, and under their influence it often passes into a state of inhibition or, conversely, strong excitation.

The central factor in physical development in adolescence is puberty, which has a significant impact on the functioning of internal organs.

Sexual desire (often unconscious) and new experiences, desires and thoughts associated with it appear.

Features of physical development in adolescence determine the most important role during this period of the correct mode of life, in particular the mode of work, rest, sleep and nutrition, physical education and sports.

A distinctive feature of mental development is that it has a progressive and at the same time contradictory hetero-chronic character throughout the entire school period. Psychophysiological functional development is at this time one of the main directions of mental evolution.

Learning activity is provided by the development of primary and secondary properties of an individual organization. The strength of the nervous system increases in relation to the processes of excitation and inhibition in the period from 8-10 to 18 years. Sensory sensitivity increases significantly in the process of development, for example, light-discriminating sensitivity increases from class 1 to class 5 by 160%.

The functions of attention, memory, thinking become more complicated. At the first stage (8-10 years), the progressive nature of the development of attention is noted, which is ensured by the growth of all its aspects (volume, stability, selectivity, switching). At the age of 10–13 years, there is a slowdown in growth, function and multidirectional changes in its individual aspects. At the age of 13–16, there is an accelerated and unidirectional growth of attention, especially its stability. Throughout school ontogenesis, the dynamics of the productivity of certain types of memory is oscillatory, curvilinear in nature. At the same time, the highest level of productivity of figurative memory is achieved at 8-11 years old, and verbal - at 16 years old (Rybalko E.F.).

The development of the intellectual sphere is the central link in development at school age. “Thinking is that function, the most intensive development of which is one of the most characteristic features of school age. Neither in sensations, nor in mnemonic abilities is there such a huge difference between a child of 6–7 years old and a young man of 17–18 years old, which exists in their thinking,” wrote P. P. Bolonsky. Schooling has a decisive influence on mental development.

Noting quantitative and qualitative changes in the development of cognitive functions and intellect in children, J. Piaget determined that as children grow and study at school, they develop the ability to perform many mental operations that were previously inaccessible. At the age of 7-8 years, the child's thinking is limited to problems relating to specific, real objects and operations with them. Only from the age of 11–12 is the ability to think logically about abstract, abstract problems formed, there is a need to check the correctness of one's thoughts, accept the point of view of another person, mentally take into account and correlate several signs or characteristics of an object at the same time. The so-called "reversibility" of thinking appears, that is, the ability to change the direction of thought, returning to the original state of an object. Thanks to this, the child understands, for example, that addition is the opposite of subtraction, and multiplication is the opposite of division. Adolescents develop scientific thinking skills, thanks to which they talk about the past, present and future, put forward hypotheses, assumptions, and make forecasts. Young men develop an inclination towards general theories, formulas, etc. The tendency to theorize becomes, in a certain sense, an age-related feature. They create their own theories of politics, philosophy, formulas for happiness and love. A feature of the youthful psyche associated with formal operational thinking is a change in the relationship between the categories of possibility and reality. The mastery of logical thinking inevitably gives rise to intellectual experimentation, a kind of game with concepts, formulas, etc. Hence the peculiar egocentrism of youthful thinking: assimilating the whole world around him into his universal theories, the young man, according to Piaget, behaves as if the world should be obey systems, not systems of reality.

The lack of formation of the mental sphere, the inability to make comparisons, establish cause-and-effect relationships, and draw conclusions make it difficult for the student to learn, require a huge amount of mechanical memory, perseverance, and make the learning process uninteresting.

The intellectual development of a person is determined by the level of maturity of functions and mental activity, as well as the conditions and content of training. The conditions of school specialized education impose a significant influence on the dynamics of intellectual functions. The development of intellectual potential has a negative effect on the reduction of requirements for students, the facilitation of training programs, training in the absence of the formation of life and professional goals, as this creates the preconditions for a slow, disharmonious type of intellectual development.

The development of the intellectual sphere has an impact on the development of other aspects of the child's psyche. In the mental appearance of a teenager, “... the activity of analyzing thoughts, a tendency to reasoning and special emotionality, impressionability are most often combined. Such a combination of features of the “thinking” and “artistic” type characterizes the unique originality of age and, apparently, is a guarantee of multilateral development in the future” (N. S. Leites).

During the school period, the motives of educational activity develop. Primary school students in the structure of motivation are dominated by the motive of striving for the position of a schoolchild, in the middle grades (grades 5-8) the desire to take a certain place in the peer group prevails, in the senior grades (grades 10-11) the orientation towards the future, and the leading motive is the motive of teaching for the sake of a future life perspective. At the same time, as noted by I. V. Dubrovina et al., many schoolchildren have an unformed cognitive need as a need to acquire and assimilate new knowledge. And this, in turn, leads to the fact that teaching is perceived by schoolchildren as an unpleasant duty, giving rise to negative emotions and persistent school anxiety, which is noted on average in 20% of schoolchildren.

If in the younger adolescence the most intense changes occur in physical development, then in the older adolescence and youth, the personality of the child develops most rapidly.

The process of personality development is characterized by two opposite tendencies: on the one hand, ever closer interindividual contacts are being established, the focus on the group is increasing, on the other hand, there is an increase in independence, the complication of the inner world and the formation of personal properties.

Adolescent crises are associated with emerging neoplasms, among which the central place is occupied by a “sense of adulthood” and the emergence of a new level of self-awareness.

The characteristic feature of a 10-15-year-old child is manifested in a heightened desire to establish himself in society, to achieve recognition of his rights and opportunities from adults. At the first stage, the desire for recognition of the fact of their growing up is specific for children. Moreover, for some younger adolescents, it is expressed in the desire only to assert their right to be like adults, to achieve recognition of their adulthood (at the level, for example, “I can dress the way I want”). For other children, the desire for adulthood consists in a thirst for recognition of their new capabilities, for others, in the desire to participate in various activities on an equal basis with adults (Feldshtein D.I.).

A reassessment of their increased capabilities is determined by the desire of adolescents for a certain independence and self-sufficiency, painful pride and resentment. Increased criticality towards adults, a sharp reaction to the attempts of others to belittle their dignity, belittle their adulthood, underestimate their legal capabilities are the causes of frequent conflicts in adolescence.

Orientation towards communication with peers often manifests itself in the fear of being rejected by them. The emotional well-being of a teenager more and more begins to depend on the place that he occupies in the team, begins to be determined primarily by the attitude and assessments of his comrades. A grouping tendency appears, which causes a tendency to form groups, “brotherhoods”, a readiness to recklessly follow the leader.

Intensively formed moral concepts, ideas, beliefs, principles that teenagers begin to be guided in their behavior. Often they form a system of their own requirements and norms that do not coincide with the requirements of adults.

One of the most important moments in the formation of a teenager's personality is the development of self-awareness, self-esteem (SE); adolescents develop an interest in themselves, in the qualities of their personality, a need to compare themselves with others, evaluate themselves, understand their feelings and experiences.

Self-esteem is formed under the influence of other people's assessments, comparing oneself with others, the most important role in its formation is the success of the activity.

If at primary school age SA is inseparable from the assessment of others, then significant changes occur in adolescence: a reorientation from external assessments to assessments of oneself. The content of SO becomes more complicated: it includes moral manifestations, attitudes towards others, and one's own capabilities. The perception of external assessments and self-perception are aggravated, the assessment of one's own qualities becomes an urgent task for a teenager. In adolescence, the development of SO goes in the direction of increasing its integrity and integration, on the one hand, and differentiation, on the other. With age, knowing himself, a person, as in a mirror, peers into another person. Turning to other people, comparing oneself with them is a necessary general prerequisite for knowing oneself. Thus, there is a kind of transfer of various personality traits, noticed in another, to oneself.

As shown by numerous studies, the presence of positive self-esteem, self-respect is a necessary condition for the normal development of the individual. At the same time, the regulatory role of self-esteem is steadily increasing from primary school age to adolescence and youth. The discrepancy between the self-esteem of a teenager and his claims leads to acute affective experiences, to exaggerated and inadequate reactions, the manifestation of resentment, aggressiveness, distrust, stubbornness.

Trends in the development of characterological features are that from 12 to 17 years of age, indicators of sociability, ease in communicating with people, dominance, perseverance, competitiveness increase markedly, at the same time, there is a tendency to reduce impulsiveness, excitability. At this age, certain properties of character are especially sharply manifested and accentuated. Such accentuations, not being pathological in themselves, nevertheless increase the possibility of mental trauma and deviations from the norms of behavior. However, emotional difficulties and the painful course of adolescence are not a universal property of youth.

The crisis of adolescence proceeds much easier if the student during this period has relatively permanent personal interests or any other stable motives for behavior. Personal interests, in contrast to episodic ones, are characterized by their "unsaturation"; the more they are satisfied, the more stable and tense they become. Such, for example, are cognitive interests, aesthetic, etc. The satisfaction of such interests is associated with the setting of ever new goals. The presence of stable personal interests in a teenager makes him purposeful, internally more collected and organized.

author Ilyin Evgeny Pavlovich

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Periodization of age is the division of human life into separate stages according to biological, partly social and economic characteristics. The number of "stages" of human development after birth can vary from three to 24. The simplest and most universal classification includes three main periods: childhood, maturity and old age. The ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras (4th century BC) distinguished four periods in a person's life, corresponding to the four seasons: formation - "spring" (0-20 years); youth - "summer" (20-40 years); the prime of life - "autumn" (40-60 years); wilting - "winter" (60-80 years).

In our country, the following age periodization scheme has been adopted (Table 1).

Table 1

Age periods of human life

This scheme is characterized by a slight increase in the old age limit, which corresponds to the main demographic trend of the 20th century - an increase in average life expectancy.

Of course, the establishment of the boundaries of periods is always conditional: individually and historically, they can shift in one direction or another. This is especially true for the period of aging, when it can be quite difficult to distinguish between old age and the elderly, on the one hand, and long-lived, on the other.

At the same time, there is an opinion that the “descending” period of a person’s life begins already at the age of 30-35, when the transition from youth to maturity takes place, and tangible changes are usually observed after 45 years. The age of 45-59 years, immediately preceding the retirement age, is even proposed to be singled out as “average” in terms of physiological and social characteristics.

The period of old age that follows it can also be characterized by still significant activity and the preservation of professional performance, while the final stage of the life cycle - physiological old age - begins at 75 years. Long-livers (after 90 years) can already be considered as a model of late physiological old age.

The age periodization of the Abkhazians, an ethnic group with a high percentage of centenarians, is peculiar. It is called "categorical", not chronological. Each category has its own social roles, but the age thresholds themselves are not clearly fixed. For example, the category of a young man is from 18 years old before marriage, or a girl from 15-17 years old before marriage. At the same time, it is assumed that longevity is associated with a high social position in society and the family. The existence of a council of elders, which usually included the heads of families, also contributed to the development of the cult of ancestors and the veneration of "living ancestors". Thus, a domestic, moral and psychological climate was created that helped the self-affirmation of the elders. Elders (usually people over 50-60 years old) led the entire economic, social and ideological life of the groups.

A peculiar feature of the way of life is the “social implication” (“implying”) of the longevity of an influential and valuable member of the group. This is the concept of a “real old man” that was formed in the Abkhaz ethnos, which in the future could already be quite independent of real biological longevity. It turned out a kind of "social longevity" - the elevation to the status of a long-liver - a very old man - people who are still far from reaching this age. Ethnologists consider "social longevity" an independent ethnocultural phenomenon, which in its further evolution is subject to social laws. In general, the features of the way of life listed above contributed to the prestige of old age and active longevity. In the history of the people, this was an intuitively found way to prolong human life.

3.2. Basic biomedical concepts of human aging

Human aging is a universal and natural biopsychological process, characterized by gradualness, temporality and steady progression, and affecting to one degree or another all levels of biological organization. Aging leads to a decrease in the viability of a person and ultimately determines the duration of his life.

Manifestations of senile involution, characteristic of some organs, are already noted in the third decade of life. Atrophy of the thymus (thymus gland) begins in adolescence, and by the age of 30 this gland may not be detected at all. The ovaries undergo involution by the age of 50 or even later. In the central nervous system, aging of its different parts occurs at different times. In the course of aging, age-related changes can occur at different rates. For example, age-related changes in the skeleton develop earlier, but progress slowly, while changes in the nervous system occur much later, but proceed much faster.

Feature aging period - the development of adaptive mechanisms that, as it were, slow down, slow down the extinction of vital functions. This is the so-called “vitaukta” process (from Latin vita – life, auctum – increase). So, when some cells die, others take over their function.

Human aging is characterized by great individual diversity in the pace and intensity of its manifestations.

In modern gerontology, the following concepts are distinguished to assess the aging process:

– heterochrony - difference in the time of onset of aging of individual cells, tissues, organs and systems;

– heterokinetic - aging at different rates;

– heterocatephicity - multidirectionality of age-related changes, in which there is a suppression of some processes and activation of others.

Thus, aging is a long, uneven process that determines the time and nature of the onset of old age - the final stage of life.

Studies of biology and medicine have made it possible to answer mainly two questions - when and how aging begins. The hardest part was explaining why it occurs, reveal the causes and mechanisms of this phenomenon.

In the aging process, age-related changes in organs and tissues are superimposed on those caused by external influences. Changes caused by aging are physiological processes that, according to many scientists, are not primarily diseases, but still lead to a limitation of the body's functionality and a decrease in its resistance to various harmful influences.

Despite the great interest of scientists of various specialties and the wide circles of the scientific community in the problem of aging, we still do not know exactly what calls him. There is no single universal and complete theory of aging yet. There are numerous hypotheses, often partially coinciding with each other or considering different links of the same processes. In general, these hypotheses affect all levels - from the molecular to the regulation systems of the whole organism, since, with all the importance and primary significance of molecular genetic changes, it would be difficult to explain all the diversity of manifestations in the overall picture of human aging by them alone. At each new level of biological organization, its own qualitatively new mechanisms arise, leading to aging.

In fact, the main question about the nature of aging was raised by the famous philosopher of antiquity Aristotle (384-322 BC): is aging a natural process or a disease? As you know, the ancient Greek scientist answered him like this: “Disease is prematurely acquired old age. Old age is a natural disease. This definition has not lost its meaning in our time. Although it now seems undeniable that aging is a natural process, it is also undeniable that in higher vertebrates, and especially in humans, a characteristic form of aging is an increase in the number of pathological changes that manifest themselves in various symptoms and cause various complaints. This specific feature of the period of withering was very succinctly, but accurately, expressed by the ancient Roman physician Galen, who wrote that health in old age is qualitatively different from health at any other age, representing something in between health and illness. The statement of the ancient physician is confirmed by the results of modern studies of centenarians, whose age has exceeded 100 years.

Among the earliest hypotheses is the notion of aging as a progressive depletion of a given vitality, for example, the theories of “wear and tear” of the body and “wasting” of vital energy and strength dating back to Aristotle and Hippocrates, which can be traced back to the 50s of the 20th century and even later.

Molecular genetic hypotheses. Molecular genetic hypotheses, which explain the aging process by primary changes in the genetic apparatus of the cell, usually attract the greatest attention. Most of them can be divided into two main options. In the first case, age-related changes in the genetic apparatus of cells are considered as hereditarily programmed, in the second - as random. Thus, aging can be a programmed natural process, a logical consequence of growth and maturation, or the result of the accumulation of random errors in the system of storage and transmission of genetic information.

If we adhere to the first opinion, then aging essentially becomes a continuation of development, during which various parts of the genome are turned on and off in a certain sequence fixed in evolution. Then, with the “stretching” of the development program, the work of the “biological clock” that sets the pace for the aging program slows down. For example, in experiments with food restriction at a young age (animals with "extended life"), growth slows down, and, consequently, aging, although the mechanism is far from being so simple. It is assumed that the slowdown in growth and the postponement of puberty and the achievement of final body size leads to an increase in life expectancy. That is, aging, like other stages of ontogeny, is controlled by genes.

Gene-regulatory hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, primary changes occur in regulatory genes, the most active and least protected DNA structures. It is assumed that these genes can determine the rate and sequence of turning on and off those structural genes that determine age-related changes in the structure and function of cells. There is little direct evidence for age-related DNA changes. Recently, it has been suggested that aging is related to regions of DNA, some of which shrink in size with aging. The discovery of a special chromosomal enzyme that prevents DNA aging and is able to rejuvenate human cells was also reported (W. Wright and co-workers).

Error hypothesis was first proposed by L. Orgel (1963). It is based on the assumption that the main cause of aging is the accumulation of genetic damage with age as a result of mutations, which can be both random (spontaneous) and caused by various damaging factors (ionizing radiation, stress, ultraviolet rays, viruses, accumulation of by-products in the body). chemical reactions, etc.). Thus, genes may simply lose their ability to properly regulate certain processes due to the accumulation of DNA damage.

Particular importance is attached to the so-called "free radicals" - highly active chemical particles. As we age, they accumulate in tissues and, due to their activity, can eventually impair cell function and damage DNA. In the experiments of N.M. Emmanuel (1972) achieved the extension of the life of laboratory animals with the introduction of substances that bind free radicals, primarily the so-called antioxidants (methionine, vitamin E, and others). This result is considered as indirect evidence in favor of free radical hypothesis.

At the same time, there is a special system of reparation (that is, restoration, from Latin reparatio), which ensures the relative strength of the DNA structure and reliability in the system of transmission of hereditary information. Experiments on several animal species have shown a relationship between the activity of DNA repair systems and lifespan. Its age-related weakening with aging is assumed. The role of reparation clearly appears in many cases of premature aging and a sharp shortening of life expectancy. This applies primarily to hereditary diseases reparations (progeria, Turner's syndrome, some forms of Down's disease, and others). At the same time, there are new data on numerous DNA repairs, which are used as an argument against error hypotheses. In an article entitled "Science denies old age," the French researcher R. Rossion (1995) believes that in the light of these facts, the theory of accumulation of errors in nucleotide sequences requires revision. However, reparation does not seem to lead to 100% repair of damage.

Summarizing the review of some molecular genetic hypotheses of aging, we conclude that it is unlikely that the positions of “programmed” and “non-programmed” effects on the genetic apparatus can be rigidly opposed to each other. In the process of aging, there is an interaction of genetic and environmental factors, that is, lifestyle, ecology can affect the rate of aging. In other words, the concept of aging as a consequence of development and differentiation, an inevitable outcome of the course of the biological clock that determines the program of biological development, by no means excludes the influence of various random molecular damages that can generate further errors.

neuroendocrine hypotheses. The human neuroendocrine system is the main regulator of its vital functions. Therefore, from the very beginning, hypotheses were actively developed in gerontology, linking the leading mechanisms of aging at the level of the organism with primary changes in the neuroendocrine system, which can lead to secondary changes in tissues. At the same time, earlier ideas about the primary significance of changes in the activity of a particular gland (pituitary, thyroid, or, especially, gonads, etc.) are being replaced by views according to which the function of more than one gland changes with aging, and the whole neuroendocrine situation of the body.

Quite widely known hypotheses linking aging with primary changes in the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is a part of the diencephalon, the generator of biological rhythms of the body, which plays a leading role in the regulation of the activity of the endocrine glands, which is carried out through the central endocrine gland - the pituitary gland.

According to the “hypothalamic clock” hypothesis (Dilman, 1976), old age is considered as a disturbance of the internal environment of the body associated with an increase in the activity of the hypothalamus. As a result, in old age, the secretion of hypothalamic hormones (liberins) and a number of pituitary hormones (gonadotropins, somatotropin), as well as insulin, sharply increases. But along with the stimulation of some structures of the hypothalamus, others with aging reduce their activity, which leads to the "deregulation" of many aspects of the metabolism and body functions.

The experience of creating a general biological complex theory of aging of the whole organism is reflected in adaptive-regulatory hypothesis(Frolkis, 1975). It is based on a general idea of ​​changes in the body's self-regulation on different levels its organization as the causes of aging. The consequence of these processes are shifts in adaptive capabilities. Due to the uneven nature of these age-related changes, adaptive mechanisms develop at different levels of life, starting with regulatory genes. The leading role in the mechanisms of aging of the whole organism is given to changes in neurohumoral regulation, affecting the sphere of the psyche, emotions, muscle performance, reactions in the circulatory and respiratory systems, etc. Together with the gene-regulatory concept, these provisions form the basis of the adaptive-regulatory theory, considering aging as a complex, internally contradictory process. VV Frolkis (1995) believes that diseases of old age also depend on changes in the activity of certain genes. Therefore, it can be assumed that age-related pathology is related to the gene-regulatory mechanisms of aging.

Along with age-related involution, extinction, disturbances in the metabolic-hormonal status and a number of functions, this period is also characterized by the emergence of important adaptive mechanisms. So, for example, with a decrease in the secretion of thyroid hormones, the sensitivity of the corresponding tissues ("targets") to them increases.

The molecular genetic and neuroendocrine hypotheses are directly adjacent to and immune hypotheses aging.

The immune system is closely related to adaptation, the adaptation of the body to stress caused by environmental changes. A healthy immune system protects the body from invading viruses, bacteria, fungi and many other foreign substances. With aging, its function is reduced, it loses its effectiveness in performing a number of specific tasks. This is associated with an increase in the body's susceptibility to a number of diseases, especially to the so-called autoimmune diseases, which are based on the loss of the body's ability to distinguish "own" proteins from "foreign" ones. In older people, the percentage of various autoantibodies produced against self-proteins is significantly increased. In the period from 40 to 80 years, it can increase by 6-8 times. All this leads to self-destruction and aging of the body, its "immunological disarmament". The criticism of this hypothesis boils down to the fact that in this case we are not talking about primary changes. Since the immune system itself is very complex, and its regulation is not fully understood, attempts to "rejuvenate" it are not yet fully prepared: "revitalization" of the overall immune response can enhance autoimmune processes.

lymphoid hypothesis. A new version of the immune theory of aging is based on the idea of ​​aging as an age-related decrease in the intensity of self-renewal of the organism and the loss of its resistance, on the undoubted connection of the immune system with aging and the duration of the coming life (Podkolzin, Dontsov, 1996). It is assumed that the reason for the early onset of the decline in immune functions is the need to limit growth, while lymphocytes are attributed control over the processes of division of various cell types, and, consequently, participation in the key mechanisms for implementing the growth program. The weakening of this function of lymphocytes can also predetermine a decrease in the potential ability of cells to divide in old age. The morphological substrate of aging, according to the authors of the hypothesis, is the hypothalamus, which has a primary regulatory effect on the immune system.

As an argument, in particular, some results of transplantation of the regulatory nuclei of the hypothalamus into old animals are given, which allowed them to restore a number of particular functions (sexual, immune, and others) and achieve some indicators of general rejuvenation.

In conclusion, it can be noted that by now a huge amount of fundamental data has been collected on the essence, features and mechanisms of aging processes at different levels of biological organization. Although about 300 hypotheses have already been proposed, an effective full-fledged theory of ontogeny has not yet been created. There is no doubt that it will absorb much of what is contained in modern hypotheses. In any case, it is clear that since human aging is determined by at least two groups of factors - genetic and environmental - there is no single universal cause of aging, but a set of partially interconnected and independent mechanisms, both programmed and random, that make up complex phenomenon - aging.

Table of age development from birth to the end of life.

Age period	Signs of the age stage	Social situation of development	Characteristics of the leading activity	Crisis manifestations	Major neoplasms	Characteristics of the cognitive, motivational-need, emotional spheres of development	Behavioral Features	Leading directions vital activity
1. Newborn (1-2 months)	Inability to distinguish oneself and others respiratory, sucking, protective and indicative, atavistic ("catchy") reflexes.	Complete biological dependence on the mother	Emotional communication with an adult (mother)	The birth process, the physical separation from the mother, adaptation to new conditions with the help of unconditioned reflexes	Sensory processes (the first types of sensations), the emergence of auditory and visual concentration. recovery complex.	Personal, need-motivational: getting pleasure.	Inactivity, sleep, facial expressions of displeasure, crying and well-fed well-being.	Formation of the need for communication
2.Infancy (up to 1 year.)	The stage of "confidence in the world": the appearance of upright walking, the formation of an individual mental life, the emergence of the ability to more expressively express one's feelings and relationship with others, autonomous speech - cooing, cooing, babbling first words.	The common life of the child with the mother, (situation "We")	Directly - emotional communication with the mother, objective activity	Crisis 1 year: The growing contradiction between the needs for knowledge of the world around and the opportunities that the child has (walking, speech, affect and will), there is a need for new impressions, communication, and the possibilities are limited - there are no walking skills, he still cannot speak	Elementary forms of perception and thinking, the first independent steps, words, an active need to know the world around, the need to communicate with adults, trust in the world, autonomous speech.	Cognitive processes: The emergence of the act of grasping, Development of movements and postures the initial form of visual-effective thinking (based on perception and action with objects), involuntary attention, perception of objects, differentiated sensations and emotional states, the formation of prerequisites for the assimilation of speech, the development of motor skills	affective outbursts, emotional reactions, expressive actions, active motor reactions, stubbornness.	The need for communication, as the main factor in the development of the psyche, the formation of basic trust in the world, overcoming feelings of disunity and alienation, knowledge of objects.
3.Early childhood (1-3 years)	The stage of “independence”, he himself can understand the purpose of the subject, autonomous speech is replaced by the words of “adult” speech (phrasal speech), psychological separation from loved ones, development of negative character traits, underdevelopment of stable motivational relationships. What was familiar, interesting, expensive before is depreciated.	Joint activities with adults, knowledge of the world of surrounding things situational business communication in cooperation with an adult, situation (“I am myself”)	Object-manipulative, object-tool activity	Crisis 3 years: obstinacy, self-will, depreciation of adults, protest rebellion, striving for despotism and independence, for the first time says “I myself!”, the first birth of a personality. two lines of independence: negativism, stubbornness, aggressiveness, or a crisis of dependence, tearfulness, timidity, the desire for close emotional attachment.	Consciousness "I myself" Active speech, vocabulary accumulation.	Practical thinking. "affective" perception of objects and situations, emotional reactions, recognition and reproduction, formation of an internal plan of action, visual-effective thinking, self-awareness arises (recognizes oneself), primary self-esteem ("I", "I am good", "I myself"), attention and memory involuntary. The emergence of a desire for independence and the need for success.	Impulsive behavior, emotional reactions associated with the immediate desires of the child and negative reactions to the demand of adults (crying, throwing himself on the sofa, covering his face with his hands, or moving chaotically, shouting incoherent words, his breathing is often uneven, his pulse is frequent; he turns red in anger, screams , clenches fists, can break a thing that comes to hand, hit) affective reactions to difficulties, curiosity	The emergence of a desire for independence and the need to achieve success, the struggle against feelings of shame and strong doubts about one's actions for own independence and autonomy.
4. Preschool childhood (3-7 years old)	The stage of "choosing the initiative": the emergence of personal consciousness, imitate subject activity and relationships between people. The period of the birth of the social "I", there is a meaningful orientation in their experiences. The transition from external actions to internal "mental".	Knowledge of the world of human relations and their imitation	Plot - role-playing game (combination of game activity with communication), didactic and game with rules.	Crisis of 7 years "crisis of immediacy": experiences are associated with the realization of a new position, the desire to become a schoolchild, but so far the attitude is preserved as to a preschooler. Reassessment of values, generalization of experiences, the emergence of the inner life of the child, a change in the structure of behavior: the emergence of a semantic orienting basis of an act (the link between the desire to do something and the unfolding actions, the loss of childish immediacy.	Subordination of motives, self-consciousness (awareness of one's experiences) and arbitrariness.	Personal (consumer - motivational): the need for socially significant and evaluative activities, the first moral feelings are formed (what is bad and what is good), new motives and needs (competitive, game, the need for independence). The sound side of speech develops, correct speech, creative imagination, developed involuntary memory, arbitrary memory is formed, purposeful analyzing perception, visual-figurative thinking, subordination of motives, assimilation of ethical norms, gender indification, self-awareness in time.	It is regulated by the semantic orienting basis of the act (the link between the desire to do something and the unfolding actions), the loss of childlike spontaneity. the appearance of one's own activity, instability of will and mood. deliberateness appears, the child begins to behave, act up	Development of active initiative and moral responsibility for their desires, knowledge of systems of relations. Psychological readiness for school - the formation of the main psychological spheres of a child's life (motivational, moral, strong-willed, mental, personal). Intellectual readiness (mental development of the child, the stock of elementary knowledge, speech development, etc.). Personal readiness (formation of readiness to accept the social position of a student who has a range of rights and obligations; the child's attitude to school, educational activities, teachers, and himself). Volitional readiness (development of moral and volitional qualities of a person, qualitative changes in the degree of arbitrariness of mental processes, the ability to obey the rules).
5. Junior school age (7-11 years old))	Stage of "mastery" the social status of the student (learning situation), the main motive is to get high marks	The social status of the student: the development of knowledge, the development of intellectual and cognitive activity	Educational and cognitive activity.	Experiences and school maladaptation, high self-esteem, a sense of incompetence. The problem of evaluation.	Arbitrariness of attention, sense of competence, self-awareness, self-esteem, internal plan of action, self-control, reflection.	Intellectual-cognitive: verbal-logical thinking, theoretical thinking, synthesizing perception appears, arbitrary semantic memory, arbitrary attention (become conscious and arbitrary), learning motives, adequate self-esteem, generalization of experiences, the logic of feelings and the emergence of inner life. The child gradually masters his mental processes.	In the organization of activities and the emotional sphere: younger students are easily distracted, incapable of prolonged concentration, excitable, emotional.	Formation of industriousness and ability to handle tools labor, which is opposed by the realization of one's own ineptitude and uselessness, knowledge is the beginning of life
6. Adolescence (11-15 years old)	Stage of communication with peers: intensive physical and physiological development. Emancipation from adults and grouping. Conformity, the formation of national and international identity.	The transition from dependent childhood to independent and responsible adulthood. The development of norms and relationships between people.	Intimate-personal communication, hypertrophied need for communication with peers. Professional-personal communication - a combination of communication on personal topics and joint group activities of interest.	Crisis of character and relationships, claims to adulthood, independence, but there are no opportunities for their implementation. provisions - "no longer a child, not yet an adult", mental and social changes against the background of rapid physiological restructuring, learning difficulties	The feeling of adulthood is the attitude of a teenager towards himself as an adult (younger adolescence), "I-concept" (older adolescence), the desire for adulthood, self-esteem, submission to the norms of collective life. Formation of interests and motivation for learning. Formation of volitional behavior, the ability to control one's emotional state.	Personal (consumer-motivational): theoretical reflective thinking, intellectualization of perception and memory, personal reflection, a male and female view of the world appears. Development of creative abilities, the ability to perform all types of mental work of an adult. The ability to operate with hypotheses, solving intellectual problems. Intellectualization of perception and memory. Rapprochement of imagination with theoretical thinking (emergence of creative impulses).	Adolescents become awkward, fussy, make a lot of unnecessary movements, fatigue, irritability, mood swings; hormonal storm, frequent mood swings, imbalance, accentuation of character.	The task of the first integral awareness of oneself and one's place in the world; the negative pole in solving this problem is the uncertainty in understanding own "I" ("diffusion of identity", knowledge of systems of relations in various situations.
7. Senior school age (16-17 years old)	stage of self-determination “the world and me”: the leading place among high school students is occupied by motives related to self-determination and preparation for independent life, with further education and self-education. The beginning of true socio-psychological independence in all areas, including: material and financial self-sufficiency, self-service, independence in moral judgments, political views and actions. Awareness of contradictions in life (between moral norms approved by people and their actions, between ideals and reality, between abilities and opportunities, etc.).	Initial choice of life path Development of professional knowledge and skills.	Educational and professional activities. Moral and personal communication.	For the first time, questions of self-determination in the profession arise, questions arise about the meaning and purpose of life, planning for the future professional and life path, disappointment in the plans, and in oneself. Crisis of 17 years: fear of choice, of adulthood.	Looking to the future, building life plans and prospects (professional and personal self-determination). Formation of life plans, worldview, readiness for personal and life self-determination, acquisition of identity (feelings of adequacy and possession of a person's own "I", regardless of the change in the situation).	Cognitive: improvement of mental processes, mental activity becomes more stable and efficient, approaching in this respect the activities of adults, the rapid development of special abilities, often directly related to the chosen professional field, the development of self-awareness. Addressed to oneself in the process of introspection, reflection, questions are of a worldview nature, becoming an element of personal self-determination.	Romantic impulses are not characteristic, a calm, orderly way of life pleases, they are guided by the assessment of others, rely on authority, in the absence of self-knowledge, they are impulsive and inconsistent in actions and relationships, there is an interest in communicating with adults.	Self-determination - social, personal, professional, creation of a life plan. Knowledge of the professional field of activity.
8. Youth (from 17 to 20-23 years old)	stage of "Human intimacy": The beginning of the establishment of genuine socio-psychological independence in all areas, including material and financial self-sufficiency, self-service, independence in moral judgments, political views and actions. Awareness of contradictions in life (between moral standards approved by people and their actions, between ideals and reality, between abilities and opportunities, etc.)	Vocational training, development of vocational work skills, labor activity, mastering the norms of relations between people, the situation of choosing a life path.	Labor activity, vocational training. Educational and professional activities	A new life situation, a sense of incompetence, admission to a university. youthful maximalism, material independence.	Ultimate self-determination. Understanding the need for learning. The value of unregulated conditions for the acquisition of knowledge. Readiness and actual ability for various types of learning.	Positive trends in development: the desire for knowledge and professionalism, the expansion of interests in the field of art, a responsible attitude towards one's future when choosing a profession, the formation of motives (prestigious motivation, the motive of power, the motive of material prosperity and well-being, the motive of creating a prosperous family). Originality of thought. Increased intellectual activity.	Student life style; partying, dating, drinking or sports, academic dedication.	Self-determination - social, personal, professional, spiritual and practical. Education, job search, military service. The task of the end of youth and the beginning maturity - search for a life partner and the establishment of close friendships, overcoming feelings of loneliness.
9. Youth (from 20 to 30 years old)	Stage of human maturity, a period of active professional, social and personal development. Marriage, birth and upbringing of children, development. Building prospects for later life.	The choice of a life partner, the creation of a family, the assertion of oneself in the profession, the choice of a life path.	Entering the workforce and mastering the chosen profession, creating a family.	The problem of the meaning of life is the crisis of 30, the reassessment of values, the unrealized life plan. Difficulties in becoming professional self-absorption and avoidance of interpersonal relationships,	Family relationships and a sense of professional competence, skill, fatherhood.	Intensive cognitive development, the needs of self-respect and self-actualization dominate, concern for the future well-being of mankind is also characteristic (otherwise, indifference and apathy arise, unwillingness to take care of others, self-absorption in one’s own problems), is characterized as “sustainably conceptual socialization, when stable personality traits are developed”, all mental processes are stabilized, the person acquires a stable character. The choice of motive: professional, motives of creative achievement, broad social motives - the motive of personal prestige, the motive of maintaining and raising the status, the motive of self-realization, the motive of self-affirmation, material motives.	Characterized by optimism, maximum performance. Creative activity. Minutes of despair, doubt, uncertainty are short-lived and pass in the turbulent flow of life, in the process of mastering more and more new opportunities.	Choosing a life partner, establishing close friendships, overcoming the feeling of loneliness, creating a family, affirmation in the profession, gaining mastery.
Maturity (30 to 60-70 years old)	The peak of professional, intellectual achievements, "akme" is the peak of the sometimes full flowering of the personality, when a person can realize his full potential, achieve the greatest success in all spheres of life. This is the time of fulfillment of one's human destiny - both in professional or social activities, and in terms of the continuity of generations. Age values: love, family, children.. The source of satisfaction at this age is family life, mutual understanding, success of children, grandchildren.	Full disclosure of their potential in professional activities and family relationships. Maintaining social status and taking a well-deserved rest.	Professional activity and family relations.	Doubt about the correctness of the life lived and significance for loved ones. Search for a new meaning in life. Loneliness in adulthood, retirement, Productivity - stagnation. The crisis of the 40s is the meaning of life, the aggravation of family relations.	Rethinking life goals awareness of responsibility for the content of one's life to oneself and to other people, productivity. Adjustments of the life plan and related changes in the "I - concept".	Productivity creative, professional, caring for people), inertia (self-absorption). Having reached the peak of his professional productivity in maturity, a person stops his development, stops in improving his professional skills, creative potential, etc. Then comes a decline, a gradual decrease in professional productivity: all the best that a person could do in his life is left behind, on the already traveled segment of the path.	Emotional costs increase with age and overload leads to stressful situations and conditions. The transition from the state of maximum activity, violent activity (inherent to the “akme” period) is painful, to its gradual curtailment, limitation due to the fact that health is undermined, there is less strength, there is an objective need to give way to new generations with subjective internal unwillingness (does not feel yourself old).	the creative forces of man against inertia and stagnation, the upbringing of children. Unleash your potential and realize yourself.
Late maturity (after 60-70 years)	Life wisdom based on experience, the appearance of a feeling of old age, accelerated biological aging, termination of employment.	Reorientation of social activity and adaptation to the new life of a pensioner.	Change of leading activity: satisfaction of one significant or essential motive, providing pleasure and entertainment	Retirement, violation of the usual regime and way of life, deterioration of financial situation, death of a spouse and loved ones. Attitude towards death, despair.	Attitude to death, rethinking of life, awareness of the value of the content of life.	Physical, biological and mental aging, decreased memory function, narrowing of interests, the focus of attention from the future moves to the past, emotional instability, egocentrism, distrust of people, exactingness, resentment, the need to transfer accumulated experience, the need for life involvement, belief in the immortality of the soul .	Decreased physical strength the frequency of depressions, neurosises increases. The tendency to remember, tranquility.	It is characterized by the formation of the final integral idea of ​​oneself, your life path, as opposed to possible disappointment in life and growing despair.

A person from birth to death goes through different age periods.

There are several popular scientific approaches considering this issue from a social and pedagogical point of view.

concept

Age periodization- This is a classification of the level of development of a person depending on his age, starting from the moment of birth and ending with death.

This indicator has not only social, psychological, but also legal significance.

So, at a certain age, criminal liability arises, the right to represent one's interests, the right to vote, the right to receive a pension, etc. appears.

Each stage of a person's life has its own characteristics, problems and priorities. Each segment of life corresponds to a certain level of socialization, a specific mental state.

Periodization of mental development

mental development- this is the state of a person by which one can judge the level of maturity of his personality from a psychological point of view. Psychological age consists of the following components:

In reality, the individual components of a person's psychological age may not coincide at all with each other and with the real biological age.

Classification by years

General classification by years in the table:

	Age period	Features of development and communication
	newborns	The birth is serious, since his intrauterine existence abruptly stops and he finds himself in a new, unfamiliar environment. In early infancy, the child is inextricably linked with his mother, through contact with her he learns the world around him. Development occurs unconsciously, reflexively, in accordance with the genetic program laid down by nature.
		Significant development of the psyche, the appearance of the first social skills - a smile, laughter, contact with adults, recognition of loved ones. The mother is still of paramount importance for the child, but he is already beginning to realize the possibility of his existence separately from her.
		There is a psychological separation of the child from the mother, awareness of one's own "I". At the age of 3, most children experience a developmental crisis - the desire to demonstrate their independence and independence, negativism, denial. Children often do not want to comply with the requests of adults and tend to act in accordance with their desires. Refusal to satisfy the request causes. Children begin to talk, learn to play with other children. Vocabulary at this age is still limited.
		Children learn the rules and norms that exist in society. Recognize what behavior is acceptable. They begin to interact actively with their peers. Parents at this age gradually fade into the background. Vocabulary and knowledge about the world around us is constantly expanding. Children under 7 years old constantly ask a lot of questions that they want answers to. The child gradually loses the childish immediacy. He is forming, actively developing his inner mental life, his own judgments appear.
		During this period, school life is of particular importance. The child develops logical thinking, self-discipline, the ability to control emotions. Morality develops, basic moral principles are established and attitudes towards the laws existing in society are developed.
		The most difficult period in the life of every person, when significant hormonal changes occurring in the body are reflected in behavior, self-esteem, relationships with peers and family. The main problem is that as a result of significant changes in the appearance of the child (the development of secondary sexual characteristics), he begins to realize himself as an adult, but due to his age for society, a teenager is still a child. The need to obey parents and teachers often causes discontent and protest. Relations with peers, who become the main authorities, come first. Communication skills (the ability to join a team, win friends, like the opposite sex) are of particular importance.
Young people		At this age, all teenage storms are left behind. Young people acquire a certain, aware of their interests and preferences. The picture of perception of the surrounding world is finally formed, a system of moral principles is established. During this period, there is a choice of further direction of development in social terms -. As a rule, at the same time, the period of the first serious relationship begins, the first adult.
Adults		The period of maturity and maximum performance. At this time, people are at the peak of their intellectual, physical, mental development. This is a period of active professional activity, creating a family,.
		At this time, most people already have a stable profession, family, children grow up. At the same time, the first signs of aging appear - wrinkles, gray hair, decreased sexual and physical activity. The midlife crisis overtakes people regardless of the degree of their social and mental well-being. At this time, there is an assessment of the passed stages of life, an analysis of their successes and failures. Often a decision is made about the need for changes in the life of changes, about correcting mistakes made earlier. Middle age is the time when most people have children in their teens and their parents are old or dead. Difficulties in communicating with children and the need to care for elderly parents require a significant expenditure of energy.
	46 - 60 years old	As a rule, having overcome the difficult period of middle age, people closer to the age of 60 enter a time of stability and calm self-confidence. Most of life is left behind and at this time people begin to truly appreciate what they have.
	61-75 years (older)	For most older people, health problems come first, since by this time all chronic diseases have become aggravated and a general weakness of the body appears. At the same time, social activity, the desire for communication, involvement in family life do not weaken. Many older people continue to work, which gives them an additional incentive to live.
	76-90 years (old)	Most of the old people are already retired and their sphere of interest is limited to their own health, communication with their families, caring for their grandchildren. In old people, the character changes significantly - it becomes less emotional, rigid. Often at this age, some infantilism and selfishness are manifested. Many have anxiety, insomnia, fear of death.
	over 90 years old (centenarians)	Physical dependence, passivity, anxiety and uncertainty are actively manifested. Of great importance is the presence of a number of close people who can provide maximum assistance. The fear of death in the majority is blunted and replaced by an objective awareness of the imminent end of life's journey.

Principles and approaches

The classification is based on the assessment of the following indicators:

The basis of periodization is determination of the real age of a person which has the above features.

At the same time, an additional analysis of the mental, biological state allows a more individual approach to assessing the personality.

Elkonin

D.B. Elkonin was inclined to believe that age gradation is of great scientific importance. Building a competent classification allows you to determine the driving forces of human development at each stage of his life.

The resulting knowledge contributes to the formation of the most complete pedagogical system, the development of effective rules for educating the younger generation.

The scientist attached particular importance to the early stages of a person's life, when the basic system of values ​​is laid and the worldview is formed. Standard age phases Elkonin divided into periods:

Each period is evaluated on four indicators:

• social impact- the influence of society on the formation of the child's personality;
• leading activity- the type of activity that has a priority effect on the mental state;
• a crisis- a negative period within each phase that must be overcome in order to move to the next level.
• neoplasms- knowledge, skills and abilities that have appeared at a new stage.

Erickson

E. Erickson identified 8 stages of personality development, each of which corresponds specific task.

According to the scientist, at each stage, when a person achieves a task, priority strengths and weaknesses appear.

Vygotsky

L.S. Vygotsky paid special attention to childhood, because he believed that understanding the specifics of each stage of a child's development gives parents the opportunity to correct their behavior and better understand the child.

Periods allocated by Vygotsky:

Vygotsky and his periodization of the development of the psyche:

Freud

Z. Freud believed that human behavior is the result of the work of his unconscious. The main driving force is sexual energy.

The scientist identified the following stages in the development of sexuality:

Periodization issues

Not always the actual age of a person coincides with the level of his mental development, with the degree of socialization.

Most of the outlined boundaries can shift in any direction, taking into account the characteristics of a particular individual. The most vague boundaries periodization in relation to adolescence.

In any case, one period gives way to another, when qualities and properties appear that were not there before.

Transition to the next stage of development and attitude automatically signifies a change in life.

Thus, at each stage of life, a person is characterized by certain features emotional, mental, intellectual development.

The issue of age periodization worried many famous scientists and continues to arouse interest in modern science.